Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology Vol.1
2007. 01.
2577-9842
2951-4983
INTRODUCE
- A tanged arrowhead with two wings excavated in Sindang-ri, Gyeongju (Umehara material 3401) is of the same type as a bronze arrowhead excavated from a site in Shangcunling, Shanxian from the early Spring and Autumn Period (Chunqiu Period).20 It is presumed that the bronze arrowheads with two-stepped tang (Umehara material 1569-1/1872/2248/3401) discovered at this site were all from the Spring and Autumn Period of China and are thought to have been introduced to Korea during the Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture period. Relatively few bronze tools have been found. There are two types of bronze axes: fan-shaped bronze axes and rectangular-shaped bronze axes. Fan-shaped axes were found at sites including Misong-ri, Uiju. Molds for bronze axes have been found in Yeongheung-eup and Songguk-ri, Buyeo. A bronze axe has been found at the Toseong-ri site, Pyeonganbuk-do Province, but it is uncertain whether it is fan-shaped. Fan-shaped axes are small—most are about five centimeters long. However, one of those found in Yeongheung-eup, Geumya is longer than 10 centimeters and bears an incised triangular pattern on the head. In the Liaoning Province, more were found in the Liaotung region than the Liaoxi region. Fan-shaped bronze axes have been discovered in stone cists of early Korean-type bronze dagger culture. Only one rectangular bronze axe was found in Gosan-ri, Jaeryeong, together with a Liaoning-type bronze dagger that has a T-shaped dagger handle. Two bronze chisels were found on the Korean Peninsula. One was made by processing a tang fragment of a Liaoning-type bronze dagger and was found in a stone cist in Songguk-ri, Buyeo. The other was found at dwelling site no. 8, Geumtan-ri, Pyeongyang. The one from Geumtan-ri21 is thin and flat without a socket. Bronze chisels with sockets like those found in the Liaoning region have not yet been discovered in Korea. One bronze hand-knife was discovered in Korea. It was excavated from the Yongheung-ri site in Gaecheon. It has three protuberances at the handle. In the Liaoning region, hand-knives of this type have been discovered mostly at sites related to the Upper Layer Culture of the Xiajiadian site. It was found together with a Liaoning-type bronze dagger, a jade pendant, and a stone axe. The body of the bronze dagger narrows towards the cutting edge, is short in length, and has an edge on the spine. Personal ornaments made of comma-shaped jades, tubular jades and round jades have been found. Comma-shaped jades or gogok have a hole at one end and most have been found in burials such as stone cists and dolmens. Most of the comma-shaped jades discovered from Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture sites are made of amazonite and can be divided into two types: those in the shape of a semi-circle with a large head and a small, straight tail slightly trimmed down toward the edges and those of smaller sizes and varied shapes. Jade pieces of the first type were found in a stone cist in Songguk-ri and in dolmens in Usan-ri, Seungju. Jades of the second type were discovered in dolmens in Usan-ri, Dolmen no. 17 at Hwangseok-ri, Jewon (formerly Jecheon); Stone cist at district IV-1, 3 in Sinchon-ri, Changwon; and a shell mound in Gonam-ri, Anmyeon-do Island. Those discovered in Gonam-ri, Anmyeon-do Island are reported to be jadeite. Comma-shaped jades excavated from Yongheung-ri, Gaecheon are semicircular. In Liaoning Province, jades of this shape were discovered at the Chengchiawatzu burial, Shenyang22 and were used for necklaces together with tubular jade beads. We cannot know exactly what types of personal ornaments such comma-shaped jades were used for. However, it is thought that they were used for earrings because larger ones have generally been discovered in pairs around the area where the ears of the buried must have been at the time of burial. Such examples were found in stone cist no. 4 at Daepyeong-ri, Bukchang and in another stone cist in Chopo-ri, Hampyeong (a Korean-type bronze dagger culture site).23 It is also possible that comma-shaped jades were used for long necklaces threaded with tubular jade beads. ( Plate 2 ) Liaoning Bronze Dagger Culture 1 the Upper Layer Culture of the Xiajiadian site 2 Liaotung Liaoning-type Bronze Dagger Culture 3 Xituanshan Culture 4 Korean Liaoning-type Bronze Dagger Culture A tubular jade bead or gwanok is a long, pipe-shaped jade bead commonly strung on a necklace. In many cases, tubular jade beads came in a set with comma-shaped beads. Most tubular jade beads are made of Egyptian jasper, but some are made of tuff or clay. They can be classified as either large or small. The large ones are longer than three centimeters and wider than one centimeter. Such jade beads were found in a stone cist in Songguk-ri, Honghyeon-ri, Baekcheon, Daepyeong-ri, Bukchang. Small ones were discovered in a dwelling pit, a jar coffin in Songguk-ri, and a burial (presumably dolmen) in Mugye-ri in Gimhae, a dolmen from Usan-ri in Seungju including other dolmens from Bonggye-dong in Yeocheon, Cheokryang-dong in Yeocheon, and Pyeongyeo-dong in Yeocheon. Another type of jade bead is smaller than one centimeter in diameter and is called so-ok. Most beads of this type are round and they were found from the sites in not only Usan-ri in Seungju but also Bonggye-dong, Cheokryang-dong, and Pyeongyeo-dong in Yeochen including Orim-dong in Yeosu. Most of these tiny jade beads are found in Southern-type dolmens in Jeollanam-do Province. Tubular jade beads and these tiny round jade beads are presumed to have been used for long necklaces. No pottery has been discovered together with Liaoning-type bronze daggers from burial sites in Korea, unlike burial sites in Liaoning Province. This may be due to differences in burial customs between the two regions. Misong-ri type pottery was discovered along with a fan-shaped bronze axe24 at the Misong-ri cave site in Uiju, Pyeonganbuk-do Province. Misong-ri type pottery was also discovered at a Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture site in Jilin Province, China, suggesting that Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture was related to Misong-ri type pottery. Top-shaped pottery, small jars with handles and perforated rims, and Songguk-ri type pottery are thought to have been closely related, given the form of stone arrowheads excavated together with pottery from stone cists in Pyeongannam-do and Hwanghae-do provinces, top-shaped pottery and small jars with handles and perforated rims from the site in Yeongheung-eup, Hamgyeongnam-do Province, and Songguk-ri type pottery from a dwelling sites in Songguk-ri south of the central part of the Korean Peninsula. In summary, early bronze culture in Korea basically originated from Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture in today’s Liaoning Province, China. It can be said that Korean bronze culture comprises a part of Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture. Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture is divided into four sub-cultures: Liaoxi (the Upper Layer Culture of the Xiajiadian site), Liaotung (Liaotung Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture), Jicheng (Xituanshan Culture), and Korean Peninsula (Korean Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture). Thus, Korea is one of the four largest regions of Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture. The discoveries of more than 78 Liaoning-type bronze daggers, T-shaped dagger handles, and Liaoning-type bronze axes that are indicative artifacts of Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture at some 63 sites in Korea prove that the Korean Peninsula was more important than the Liaotung region, not to mention Jicheng. Of the four regions, Korea was the second most important after the Upper Layer Culture of the Xiajiadian site. Until recently, the Korean Peninsula had generally been considered a peripheral region of Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture but this view should be revised, separate from the discussion of the origin of the culture. Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture in Korea had the same features as Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture in other regions. This may simply be due to the geographical location. As it is a peninsula, new cultural influences were continually being transmitted into Korea from the north. The type of spearhead of the bronze mold discovered at the site in Yeongheung-eup was also discovered in Jicheng, China. The hand-knives with serrate handles like the one found at the Yongheung-ri site were also found in Liaoxi and are from the Upper Layer Culture of the Xiajiadian site. The fan-shaped axe is a characteristic of Liaotung Province. Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture represented by the Chengchiawatzu site, Shenyang is similar to the early Korean-type Liaoning bronze dagger culture. The most common types of tombs of each region, that is, box-shaped stone coffin, stone-lined tombs, stone cists, and pit tombs are all found in Korea. However, dolmens are a characteristic tomb type that is only found in Korean Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture. Also, sites of stone mounds on hills have been discovered only in Korean Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture thus far. Another difference is that no indication of horse-riding or chariot fixtures has yet been found in Korea. Broken and whole bronze daggers, processed bronze chisels, and bronze axes were buried as votive objects in Korea. These patterns represent one of the features of Korean Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture, which cannot be found in neighboring regions. Bronze daggers with grooves on the tangs have not been found in the cultural sphere of other Liaoning-type bronze culture. In Korea, they are distributed only in the central western part and southern part of the country, and the distribution is similar to that of Songguk-ri type dwelling sites. Furthermore, most of them have been found in Southern-type dolmens…
COPYRIGHT & LICENSE
- Yi Kun-moo(Professor, Yong In University)
The incipient bronze culture of Korea began with the discovery of bronze artifacts like hand-knives and jade beads, dating from 1500 to 1000 B.C., and evolved distinctly from the Liaoning bronze dagger culture of China. The Liaoning-type culture, appearing around 1000 B.C., introduced unique bronze daggers, distinct from Chinese types, to Korea, spreading primarily via the western coast. In Korea, these daggers coexisted with stone tools in various archaeological sites, while simpler bronze artifacts like spears, knives, and arrowheads were typical. Despite similarities, these cultures differ in complexity and ceremonial elements, with Korean sites lacking horse-related artifacts prominent in China. The Liaoning culture transitioned into the Korean-style bronze dagger culture, marked by unique daggers and ritual objects, influenced by Siberian and Scythian cultures, and significant in shaping Japan's bronze culture. The introduction of iron from China eventually led to the decline of Korean bronze culture. Korean bronze objects show distinct metallurgical practices, including unique composition ratios and repair techniques.
- Oh Joosok(Adjunct Professor, Chung-Ang University)
Kim Hong-do, a prominent Korean painter born in 1745, is renowned for his optimistic depictions of Joseon culture, influenced by the peaceful and prosperous era under Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo. Serving as a court painter, equivalent to a low-ranking government official, Hong-do stood out due to his exceptional talent. He frequently produced paintings for the king's direct orders, bypassing typical duties. Hong-do's work spans genres, combining mastery in landscapes, portraiture, and more, infused with Korean sentiment. His talents extended to poetry and music, earning him favor with King Jeongjo. Despite later life hardships, he left a lasting impact on Korean art, embodying Joseon’s spirit. His art reflects his love for his era, mingling scholarly pursuits with a zest for life, making him a revered figure in Korean history.
- Yoshii Hideo(Associate Professor, Kyoto University)
The Baekje Kingdom (18 B.C.–660) had significant cultural and technological influence on Japan. Archaeological findings, such as stone chambers and roof tiles, support the presence of Baekje culture in Japan. Despite challenges due to the scarcity of Baekje artifacts compared to Silla or Gaya relics, newer excavations have uncovered key artifacts revealing Baekje's impact on Japan, seen in techniques in metalwork, pottery, and temple construction, particularly in eras before the 7th century. This cultural interplay, analyzed through recent excavations and studies, illustrates the historical connections between Japan and Baekje, which reached their peak during Baekje's peak power in the 5th and 6th centuries, continuing to affect Japan as Baekje artisans and aristocrats migrated there after Baekje's fall.
- Kim Bong Ryol(Professor, Korea National University of Arts)
The study investigates Seongyojang, a unique traditional Korean house, located in Unjeong-dong, Gangneung-si, used for both residence and social activities. Seongyojang consists of four sets of building arrangements: individual buildings, building groups, aggregations, and geographical levels, each employing collective elements in its planning. Initially built in 1756, Seongyojang grew into a large manor over three phases, undergoing numerous expansions. It evolved from a family house to a socio-political center, accommodating guests, and tenants, while extending its domain to include nearby regions. The architectural strategy reflects its growth from an upper-class home to a grand manor through systematic expansion and design elements like ondol, madang, and Hwallaejeong, showcasing a theory of collective composition for extending territory.
- Imai Atsushi(Senior Manager, Tokyo National Museum)
The study of Goryeo celadon shards, excavated alongside Chinese pottery in Japan's Hakata and Kamakura areas post-WWII, has evolved significantly. Initially, limited data, such as the misidentification of some Chinese ceramics as Korean, impeded accurate historical mapping. However, increased archaeological investigations over the past 20 years have improved understanding. Despite fewer Korean finds than Chinese, interest has grown, supported by Nishitani Tadashi's 1983 study and the 1984 conference on Goryeo ceramics. Goryeo celadon, rich in tradition, was shaped by Chinese influences but evolved uniquely in Korea. Early Goryeo celadon (11th-12th century) has been found in Japan, possibly imported to meet demand as Chinese celadon's presence declined, indicating selective importation. Research disparities exist between Japan and Korea regarding celadon production periods. High-quality Goryeo celadon, celebrated for its jade-green glaze in Xu Jing's 1123 Travelogue, flourished in Korea's 12th-century kilns, with animal-themed pieces like incense burners and water droppers appearing in Japan. The later Goryeo period saw less refined celadon, marked by Jeongneung inscriptions, making its presence in Japan between dynastic changes. Charcoal-gray unglazed stoneware, a lesser-studied Korean export, was utilized as everyday storage in medieval Japan. Tsushima Island, a key trade route, hoarded Goryeo ceramics serving as artifacts for historical reference. The transition to Joseon Buncheong ware in the 14th century mirrors continuity rather than a break from Goryeo celadon, indicating longstanding ceramic exchange between Korea and Japan.
- Cho Sunmie(Professor, Sungkyunkwan University)
Korean portraiture's origins are unclear, with the earliest dating back to the Three Kingdoms period. Mural figures from Goguryeo suggest early portraiture, though these likely weren't realistic depictions. During the Silla period, portraits of kings and monks became common, and in the Goryeo period, portraits of royal and aristocratic individuals were prevalent, though few survive today. In Joseon, portraiture flourished, often depicting individuals of high status for enshrinement, serving both ceremonial and commemorative functions, characterized by a focus on realism.