Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology Vol.5
2011. 01.
2577-9842
2951-4983
INTRODUCE
- PORTRAITS OF THE JOSEON DYNASTY
- The new format allows each issue to devote plenty of space to a Special Feature on a single topic, in addition to Feature articles on other topics, and the occasional Collection article. The present volume focuses on Joseon Dynasty portraits, with four articles on different aspects of this important field. The late Professor Dietrich Seckel’s otherwise monumental study of East Asian portraiture, Das Porträt in Ostasien (3 vols., Heidelberg 2005), published when he was already 95, has scant material on Korea, so these articles are especially welcome. Between them, they cover all aspects of the production, display and, all too often, destruction of portraits, and their changing purposes over time. Foremost is Cho Insoo’s article on the production and enshrinement of Royal Portraiture: portraits of Joseon monarchs that were originally intended for display during court rituals. Of these, the most important was the portrait of the founder, King Taejo, displayed in a special royal portrait hall. Unlike in Western Asia and in Europe, where portraits of the monarch were familiar to everyone because his likeness was depicted on coinage, in Korea this was not the case, and the royal portraits were central to prescribed ceremonies and rituals to which ordinary people had no access. The author has investigated the checkered history of the royal portraits and the halls where they were displayed, noting the destructions during the Japanese and Manchu invasions, and the subsequent revival of the tradition after a century of disuse, following which the Joseon kings used royal portraiture to strengthen the power of the monarchy, often against strenuous opposition from the Confucian bureaucracy. Scholar-official portraiture, on the other hand, the subject of the second article, by Kang Kwanshik, was principally used in the early Joseon dynasty to recognize merit subjects, those who had done meritorious service for the state or the monarch. It is interesting to note, in the portrait of Shin Sukju, showing him around 1453 when he was in his mid-thirties, that the rank-badge appears to be embroidered directly on the robe, exactly like those worn by three leading Chinese officials in Xie Huan’s painting of Literary Gathering in the Apricot Garden of circa 1437 (former collection of Wango Weng, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City). By the early seventeenth century, however, Korean portraits of literati had evolved a distinct style of their own, and featured carpets that in Ming China were the prerogative of imperial portraits alone. Following the example of Song Siyeol who wrote a self-deprecating inscription on his own portrait, balanced by a royal encomium, Joseon literati portraits came to have a commemorative role, and were displayed in shrines devoted to the memory of Confucian scholars, to encourage self–cultivation and reflection. The third article, by Lee Soomi, continues the theme of Joseon portraiture, but with especial regard to the actual manufacture of the portrait paintings, from initial sketches on paper to the finished work, and examining in particular the role of pigments applied to the back of the painting silk, in order to achieve a heightened opacity and depth of color. An understanding of the processes involved in the making of a portrait is not only intrinsically valuable, it is also useful in the evaluation of some of the actual portraits that are still extant, for example the unique and mesmerizing Self-Portrait of Yun Duseo, still in the collection of Nogudang, the Confucian shrine honoring the memory of Yun’s grandfather, which, although painted on paper rather than silk, also proves to have some coloring applied to the back. This article includes a series of illustrations of front and back, only feasible when the paper backings are removed during conservation and remounting, that show exactly what colors were applied on the back, and to which areas: generally pink for the facial features, and white for the beard or throat. Continuing the main theme, the fourth article, by Kwon Heangga, returns to royal portraiture, this time in the reign of King Gojong, in the late nineteenth century, when photography had already made a significant impact. Whereas very few portraits of earlier Joseon monarchs have survived the invasions and other trials of time, King Gojong’s portraits are quite numerous, and include photographs taken by western visitors, in particular Percival Lowell from America, who in 1884 was granted two audiences to photograph both the King and the Crown Prince. His carefully composed and extremely dignified photographs of King Gojong, both standing and seated in the Nongsujeong Pavilion inside the Changdeokgung Palace, with pine trees visible in the background, published in 1885 in his book, Chosön, Land of the Morning Calm, are a far cry from traditional royal portraiture, and show to what extent King Gojong was willing to engage with the outside world. While few examples remain of early Joseon portraiture and of royal portraiture in particular, two of the remaining four articles in this issue offer even greater challenges for their authors, in that material evidence is extremely scarce, or difficult to interpret, while the last deals with a very particular instance and a veritable superabundance of actual remains. The first of these, by Seong Chuntaek, examines the probable patterns of hunter-gatherer interactions in the Post-Glacial period of Korean prehistory, with the aid of comparisons with archaeological theory in other regions of the world. Most worthy of note is that at the period of maximum glaciation (Last Glacial Maximum, circa 12,000 BP) what is now the West or Yellow Sea was considerably narrower, and the sea passage between the Korean mainland and the archipelago of Japan was also very narrow, allowing for possible contacts across the straits. As the ice receded, the sea level rose, progressively widening the West (Yellow) Sea to its present extent, and distancing the Korean peninsula from Japan. The author suggests that the paucity of archaeological evidence from the post-glacial period may be the result of foraging bands having to search beyond their original areas as the land area in the south of the peninsula shrank from the rising sea level, together with concentrations of population in estuarine areas, leading to new patterns of exchange with neighboring groups. The second feature article, by Kim Jongil, on the archaeology of the Neolithic and Bronze Age of the Korean peninsula, also has to contend with a scarcity not so much of evidence, since in this case and especially in the Bronze Age there are plenty of finds, as of interpretation, due to the long-term domination of the field by mainly male archaeologists who have been slow to recognize or indeed to document at all the female perspective in the prehistory of Korea. As with the previous article, the author has taken full advantage of recent archaeological theories from other parts of the world, such as post-processual archaeology, and applied them to the archaeology of Korea, to suggest how one should interpret finds from burials of the Neolithic, when images of female figurines indicated that women and femininity were recognized as being of clear social value in the community, and of the Bronze Age, when there was a more significant assertion of masculinity, for example in burials with bronze weapons. Two articles are devoted to ceramics, both involving trade between the Korean peninsula and the Chinese mainland. The first, by Jang Namwon, is devoted to the question of ceramic exchanges between Korea and northern China during the first two centuries of the Goryeo dynasty, contemporary with the Liao and Jin dynasties on the mainland. Two arguments emerge from the discussion: firstly, that the early Goryeo kilns, by producing white wares as well as celadons at the same kilns near the Goryeo capital Gaegyeong, and by the adoption of a two-stage firing technique, bisque firing followed by glaze firing, were predominantly influenced by northern Chinese kilns, even if the structure of the kilns themselves, and some production methods, show evidence of southern Chinese practice. Numerous bowls show a broad flat ring-foot, typical of northern Chinese white wares such as Xing and Ding, which were at the height of their success. Secondly, some artifacts such as fragments of janggo (ceramic drum bodies) from at least two sites, show carving of designs either in the body or through black slip, that were then filled with white clay, while other vessels such as maebyeong were decorated with painted designs in iron oxide. These techniques parallel those found in northern Chinese wares, and demonstrate that the inlay technique was already being practiced in Korea in the tenth century, prior to its more common use in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The last article in this issue, by Lee Taehee, appearing under the heading Collection, is also devoted to ceramics, but in this case the artifacts under discussion are, with a handful of exceptions, all from China. They were discovered by accident by a fisherman in 1976 when pieces of ceramics surfaced in his fishing nets. Following eight years of underwater excavation, in eleven stages when the weather conditions permitted, and subsequent examination of the cargo, now housed in the National Museum of Korea, the heavily-laden vessel was determined to have set sail from the Chinese port of Ningbo, probably en route to Japan, in the summer of 1323, under the Yuan dynasty. Crucial evidence for the precise date was provided by inscribed wooden tags, some dated, many of them accompanying a consignment of twenty-seven tons of copper coins. Even this staggering quantity of valuable metal, however, must take second place to the well over 27,000 pieces of ceramics from the cargo, mainly L…
COPYRIGHT & LICENSE
- Roderick Whitfield(Percival David Professor, Emeritus SOAS, University of London)
The fifth annual volume of the Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology introduces improvements for greater accessibility, including enhanced illustrations and a new typeface. The journal aims to expand its international reach by featuring a special focus on Joseon Dynasty portraits and exploring related themes. Articles cover diverse topics such as royal and scholar-official portraiture, the processes of portrait creation, and the impact of photography on portraiture. Other articles delve into Korean prehistory, Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeology, and historical ceramic exchanges with China. The journal’s format allows for detailed exploration of a single topic alongside feature and collection articles. Lastly, the volume acknowledges contributions from translators and editors under the new leadership of Director Kim Youngna at the National Museum of Korea.
- Cho Insoo(Professor, Korea National University of Arts)
The only surviving royal portrait from the Joseon Dynasty, the "Portrait of King Taejo," exemplifies the era's regal imagery. Initially painted during King Taejo's reign (1392-1398) and reproduced in 1872, it highlights the tradition's political significance during the Joseon period. Following invasions and political turmoil, particularly during King Seonjo and King Gwanghaegun's reigns, many royal portraits were lost. Efforts to restore this tradition were notable under Kings Sukjong, Yeongjo, and Jeongjo, emphasizing portraits' roles in legitimizing royal authority and as ritual objects.
- Kang Kwanshik(Professor, Hansung University)
The establishment of Neo-Confucianism as the state ideology of the Joseon Dynasty profoundly impacted its culture, especially in the realm of literati portraiture. This period saw the rise of portraits depicting literati in a fashion that reflected the intertwined political, ritual, and philosophical tenets of Neo-Confucianism. Initially, portraits of meritorious subjects showcased individuals in formal court robes, illustrating their official rank and loyalty. As the Neo-Confucian order became more pervasive, portraiture evolved to emphasize self-cultivation and reflection, depicting scholars in austere garb. By the late Joseon period, commemorative portraits of officials proliferated, highlighting political accomplishments in ornate court dress, while simpler attire depicted ordinary literati's humanity and virtue. Additionally, literati artists explored self-portraiture as a means to introspect and manifest the inner self's nuanced facets. This evolution in portraiture underscores the pervasive influence of Neo-Confucianism and the distinct socio-cultural climate of the Joseon Dynasty.
- Lee Soomi(Curator, National Museum of Korea)
Traditional studies of late Joseon Dynasty (17th-19th century) portraits often treat them as isolated, finished artworks, ignoring the intricate production stages like sketching and reverse coloring. This paper shifts focus to these overlooked processes. Sketching began with "chobon," initial drafts typically destroyed after completion, and varied by the subject's status—alive, deceased, or reproduced. Reverse coloring, "baechae," involved applying pigments on the back, enhancing depth and detail, a method also used on final portraits. The study draws on National Museum of Korea's findings from scientific analyses, offering fresh perspectives on the creation and significance of these historical works and highlighting the need for broader research into Korean portraiture.
- Kwon Heangga(Lecturer, Korea National University of Arts)
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, King Gojong's portraits became central to Korea's image amidst international tensions. Unlike European and Japanese rulers who wore formal attire, Gojong appeared in traditional gowns, seen as outdated. His portraits, initially foreign-composed, symbolized Korea's need for modernization. Photography reshaped royal representation, with portraits serving both foreign diplomatic and domestic patriotic purposes. Though foreigners largely controlled their production, these images underscored Korea's sovereignty and sought public loyalty. Despite technological limitations, Gojong's portraits were strategic in reinforcing traditional values and expanding political roles amidst modernization.
- Seong Chuntaek(Associate Professor, Kyung Hee University)
In Korean archaeology, understanding postglacial cultural change is challenging due to scarce data and literature. Traditional views suggested migration from Siberia, leaving the Korean Peninsula uninhabited for 2,000-3,000 years postglacially, but this lacks evidence. The rising sea level submerged the Yellow Sea Basin, complicating regional connections. Hunter-gatherer societies likely relocated frequently, impacting social networks and diminishing populations. The drop in available resources and transformations in territoriality induced by environmental changes and rising seas likely caused major demographic challenges. Consequently, the peninsula might have experienced decreased population density, complicating the archaeological record of postglacial occupation.
- Kim Jongil(Professor, Seoul National University)
The recent growth in archaeological data in Korea has highlighted new research agendas, especially concerning women and gender, traditionally overlooked in Korean archaeology. Despite early works by scholars like Sarah Nelson and Kim Seonju, gender issues still lack representation due to scarce data on women and a narrow focus on topics like social hierarchy and early states. The dominance of male perspectives in Korean archaeology has led to the marginalization of women's roles. By using theoretical frameworks, researchers can better interpret the limited data on gender from prehistoric Korea. Studies suggest that material culture, including body ornaments and burial practices, can reflect gender identity, which has been evident in findings from the Neolithic period. However, this expression diminished during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages due to a community focus on equality. In contrast, the Late Bronze Age emphasized individual masculinity through burial practices, showcasing a shift in values towards warrior symbolism.
- Jang Namwon(Assistant Professor, Ewha Womans University)
The Goryeo Dynasty's ceramic production was initially influenced by Yuezhou kilns from southern China but later integrated elements from northern China, including concurrent production of celadon and white porcelain, unique vessel forms, and decoration techniques like inlaying and iron-painting. This transition was influenced by interactions with the Liao and Jin dynasties, which affected the techniques and forms of Goryeo ceramics. The influence of northern China introduced innovations such as secondary firing and new vessel designs. This underscores a fusion of diverse cultural influences in the evolution of Goryeo ceramics.
- Lee Taehee(Associate Curator, National Museum of Korea)
Throughout history, the sea has been a vital transportation route, more economical for moving large quantities of goods compared to land. Maritime routes like the Silk Road lasted longer than their land counterparts, evidenced by discoveries like the Sinan Shipwreck. Found in Sinan, Korea, the wreck uncovered over 30,000 artifacts, including ceramics, coins, and personal items, offering insights into East Asian trade circa 1323. Excavations faced challenges but unveiled diverse artifacts, mainly Chinese ceramics, plus items indicating possible Japanese and Korean presence. The National Museum of Korea now holds these artifacts, crucial for understanding historic maritime trade.