Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology Vol.6
2012. 01.
2577-9842
2951-4983
INTRODUCE
- CELADON OF THE GORYEO DYNASTY
- However, the writers in this issue are concerned less with the outstanding quality of Goryeo celadons than with solving questions of their manufacture, dating and distribution in a historical context. Thus, Lee Jongmin examines the construction and location of the kilns, the earliest of which, dating from the second quarter of the tenth century, have been discovered in Hwanghae Province and the northern part of Gyeonggi Province, not far from the Goryeo capital, Gaeseong, situated to the northwest of present-day Seoul. These kilns were up to forty meters in length, and constructed using unfired bricks; their products were made for use in the Goryeo capital. Perhaps because of attacks from the north by the Khitan Liao, later kilns of smaller size and less solid construction were situated in the mid-west of the Korean peninsula, particularly in the region of Buan, on the coast of North Jeolla Province. In the second article, Koo Illhoe focuses on those celadons from the Buan region, where the Yucheon-ri kilns, producing high quality celadons and architectural elements such as celadon roof-tiles, were discovered in 1929. Still later kilns, generally smaller in scale, but in much greater number, were found even further south along the coastal areas of South Jeolla Province. The products of these kilns were collected in twelve official warehouses and shipped to the capital by sea on an efficient annual basis, departing in the same month but arriving at different times according to the length of the journey. Shipwrecks have provided and are expected to continue to provide vivid evidence of this transportation system. Jeon Seungchang’s article examines a different aspect of Goryeo celadon, produced in the late 13th century, apparently for presentation to the Mongol emperors, who however did not always appear to be much impressed: in a famous anecdote, when Khubilai Khan enquired whether the gold could be recovered if a vessel was broken, and received a reply in the negative, he directed that no more such porcelains should be sent. Few examples remain, but the author’s thorough investigation reveals the probable identity of the adhesive used, in conjunction with a second firing, to fix the gold decoration on the glazed celadon surface. In addition, a combination of historical reference and stylistic analysis serves to confirm the early 14th-century dating of celadon wares inscribed with the cyclical characters denoting individual years, helping to settle a question that has long been debated, since such cyclical characters only indicate the number of the year in a cycle of sixty, without any additional information as to which particular cycle, such as might be provided by a reign title or king’s name. Yet another aspect of Goryeo celadon, already well known for its Buddhist associations, is explored in Kim Yunjeong’s article on Taoist motifs, documented by comparison of celadons with records of Taoist rituals performed in the royal court and recorded in the Goryeo official history. In addition to figural vessels in the shape of Taoist immortals, the most distinctive cranes-and-clouds pattern, one of the most elegant of all Goryeo celadon motifs, has clear associations with Taoist aspirations to longevity or immortality. In this case too, historical reference provides an important complement to the detailed examination of motifs, revealing that such celadon vessels were made in the latter part of the 13th century as substitutes for earlier ritual utensils made of jade or other precious materials, when the latter became scarce owing to the Mongol invasions of the first half of the 13th century. The two articles headed Feature in this issue take us back to the archaeological sites and monuments of the Bronze Age, Early Iron Age, and Proto-Three Kingdoms periods. Lee Heejoon draws conclusions concerning the changing character from political or priestly to military authority, and finally to the economic power of ancient chiefdoms, through an investigation of the typical grave goods in each period. Moving on to the Three Kingdoms period, Lee Sungjoo argues that the forming method, rather than the in- troduction of high-temperature firing, was important in the social use of pottery vessels and in providing a means of distinguishing between Silla and Gaya styles throughout the fifth and early sixth centuries. Thus this article examines not merely the grave goods themselves, but the differences in the actual manufacture of pottery vessels used for ritual ceremonies and burials, as the use of the potter’s wheel spread throughout Silla and Gaya, enabling potters to produce a greater range of vessel types. Another two articles complete this volume. The first of these, by Hwang Jungyon, examines literary references to the collection and appreciation of art in the late Joseon Dynasty, reversing the traditional Confucian view which held that attachment to material goods was detrimental to a person’s character. This view began to change in the 17th century, particularly under the influence of imported Chinese books on collecting and connoisseurship of works of art, particularly calligraphy and painting which it was natural for scholars to be able to appreciate. Those who were truly interested in art and antiquities strove to cultivate their expertise, even though they may have lacked the means to acquire a collection of their own; they were also influenced by Chinese example to aim at a life of reclusion. Eventually, those who did possess a substantial collection began to make it available to others through the construction of sujangcheo, a building that served as a library or museum that could be visited, a tradition that still continues to the present day. The final article in this volume, by Min Kilhong, is devoted to a single painting of a different character, since it concerns an important occasion in the education of a Crown Prince, recorded in pictorial form from an aerial perspective, and accompanied by lengthy texts listing the participants and describing the ceremony, written on three panels of the same eight-panel screen. The occasion was when Crown Prince Munhyo met his officially appointed mentors in 1784. The screen, the sole surviving example to record this ceremony, serves both as a record of the occasion and as a blueprint for any future ceremony of the same kind. Readers may wish to compare this screen with the royal manuscript, Record of the Presentation Ceremony and Banquet in the gisa Year (1809), introduced in volume 04 of this Journal by Beth McKillop. Both works are executed from the same aerial viewpoint, and both feature an empty seat for the protagonist, Crown Prince Munhyo and Lady Hyegyeong, respectively, each with a large folding screen behind the seat. However, although the two works are only twenty-five years apart, each leaf of the 1809 album is shown in a far more pronounced oblique perspective that may betray a stronger western influence. The panels of the screen, on the other hand, are seen in almost directly frontal view: only in the main hall, which is brought right forward to occupy the central space, are the side walls depicted in steeply foreshortened view. The author of this article also points out how the painter of the screen followed the traditional technique of adding pigments in certain areas on the back of the painting surface, in a manner similar to that demonstrated in Lee Soomi’s article on the production process of late Joseon portraits, in volume 05 of this Journal. The illustrations in both volumes showing the back of the painting are especially helpful for the understanding of how these works were painted. For this last volume of my editorship of the Journal, I would like to express my gratitude to the successive Directors of the National Museum of Korea for affording me the honor of undertaking this task, as well as my thanks to the translators and editorial staff, especially Ms Park Myoungsook and Ms Yoon Jiyeon who have responded so promptly and efficiently to a great number of comments and queries. I wish the Journal every success in future issues, which will build up into a handsome series which will be essential references for western scholars seeking to expand their knowledge of Korean art and archaeology. Roderick Whitfield Percival David Professor, Emeritus SOAS, University of London
COPYRIGHT & LICENSE
- Roderick Whitfield(Percival David Professor, Emeritus SOAS, University of London)
This issue of the Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology features articles previously published in Korean, now presented to a Western audience with enhanced visuals. The primary focus is on Goryeo celadon ceramics, renowned for their craftsmanship and unique glaze. Authors explore aspects of their production, dating, and historical context. Additional articles investigate the evolving authority from political to economic power in ancient Korea, Confucian views on art collecting in the Joseon Dynasty, and a unique painting depicting Crown Prince Munhyo's ceremony. Editor Roderick Whitfield expresses gratitude to the National Museum of Korea and contributors, wishing the Journal ongoing success as an essential resource for Korean art and archaeology scholars.
- Lee Jongmin(Professor, Chungbuk National University)
For over 90 years, scholars have examined the origins of Korean celadon production. Two main theories exist: one suggests it began in the southwest around the 9th century Unified Silla Period, while the other posits it started in the early 10th century Goryeo Dynasty. Celadon production sites evolved from large brick kilns in Gyeonggi Province to smaller earth kilns in South Jeolla by the 11th century due to political and social shifts, including the Khitan invasions, military construction, and maritime transport establishment, relocating production from the capital to more stable regions.
- Koo Illhoe(Head of the Department of Fine Art, National Museum of Korea)
The study of Goryeo celadon advanced significantly after Nomori Kens discovered the Yucheon-ri kiln site in 1929. The site, in Buan-gun, was confirmed as a pivotal spot for Goryeo ceramics production. The Yucheon-ri kilns were major producers of high-quality and ordinary celadon, which were also found at royal palaces, temples, and tombs. These kilns began operating in the 12th century due to increased demand for ceramics influenced by Northern Song Dynasty wares. The kilns in Gangjin and Buan were significant, operating until the end of the Goryeo Dynasty. Various celadon types, such as seong-inscribed and high-quality celadon, were produced, reflecting close ties between Yucheon-ri and Gangjin kilns. Despite Japanese pirate attacks and Mongol invasions causing significant disruption, the Yucheon-ri kilns remained a crucial research site for understanding Goryeo ceramics.
- Jeon Seungchang(Director, Amorepacific Museum of Art)
Gold-painted celadon hwageum cheongja from the late Goryeo Dynasty is a rare and exquisite ceramic type, distinguished by gold lines applied over the celadon glaze. Few examples remain, as none have been found in kiln sites. They showcase the magnificence of Goryeo celadon's inlay technique. Historical records and surviving relics are vital for understanding late Goryeo celadon's production characteristics. Notably, these artworks were once given as gifts to Yuan emperors, highlighting their special status. The method of gold decoration involves applying gold powder mixed with adhesive, possibly garlic juice, onto glazed surfaces before firing at low temperatures. Further research is needed to uncover the full history and techniques of gold-painted celadon. This ceramic type uniquely links to gold-painted Buddhist artworks, suggesting shared decorative practices influenced by religious art. Through comparisons with celadon featuring ganji inscriptions, it's suggested they were produced in the early 14th century, contributing to an understanding of the period's ceramic chronology. Gold-painted celadon holds significant historical and cultural value, indicating cultural exchanges between Goryeo and Yuan. Despite its rarity and limited study, it remains a fascinating testament to the artistic and diplomatic pursuits of its era.
- Kim Yunjeong(Assistant Professor, Department of Cultural Properties of Yong In University)
While Goryeo (918-1392) is known for its Buddhist roots, Taoist rituals, especially the choje or chorye, were significant in the royal court, as documented in the Goryeosa. This paper explores how these rituals influenced the production and design of Goryeo celadons, particularly during the 12th and 13th centuries. Figurative celadons reflected Taoist symbolism, including motifs like cranes-and-clouds and depictions of Taoist immortals. From the late 13th century, celadons were inscribed with Taoist-related terms and used in rituals. The fluctuations in Taoist practices, often tied to the royalty's sponsorship, notably affected the production, switching from precious metals in earlier times to celadon in response to economic constraints following the Mongol invasions.
- Lee Heejoon(Professor, Kyungpook National University)
The great mounds of Gyeongju's tumuli showcase the power of ancient Silla rulers, particularly evident through the rich grave goods inside them. By studying these goods from burials across periods, we understand the evolving power of Korean chiefs, transitioning from authority to influential control. The Bronze Age marked the ideological foundation of rulers' power, with symbolic items like daggers, while the Early Iron Age saw an economic base emerge through trade. This transformed during the Proto-Three Kingdoms, as military power solidified, solidifying political dominance by the second century CE.
- Lee Sungjoo(Professor, Kyungpook National University)
During the Three Kingdoms Period in Korea, Silla and Gaya pottery styles predominated in the Yeongnam region, separated by the Nakdong River. These styles were not uniform; Silla had Changnyeong, Uiseong, and Seongju styles, while Gaya had Dae Gaya, Ara Gaya, and So Gaya styles. Pottery was produced in large quantities using a fast potters wheel. Stylistic differences arose from potters' choices and socio-cultural factors, not just political events. Ceramic style development included technological transmission and regional variation, with certain vessel types prominent in funerary rituals.
- Hwang Jungyon(Associate Curator, National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage)
The Korean concept of "seohwa sujang," or art collecting, is a comprehensive practice that includes researching, identifying, and appreciating art, alongside managing and preserving collections. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), art collecting developed through its social and economic foundations, changing art subjects and styles, and meeting collectors' demands, despite Confucian values viewing material attachment as inappropriate. By the 17th century, collecting became more accepted, spurred by a change in attitudes and the import of Chinese texts that fostered appreciation and theoretical discussions around art. Prominent collectors like Hong Yangho advocated for the intrinsic value of art akin to calligraphy, influencing Joseon scholars to appreciate art as a form of self-cultivation. Art collecting evolved significantly with notable figures like Kim Gwangsu and Hong Seokju, whose passion for art went beyond aesthetics to an almost obsessive devotion. Managing and preserving art became crucial, aided by knowledge from Chinese encyclopedias. The era saw the rise of "sujangcheo," private art spaces for viewing, storing, and discussing art. These developments reflect a shift in the perception of art collecting in Joseon society, laying groundwork for subsequent art history and theory within Korea.
- Min Kilhong(Associate Curator, National Museum of Korea)
During the Joseon Dynasty, the Crown Prince, known as "wonja," received specialized education at Boyangcheong, an institution created for their learning. In 1784, Crown Prince Munhyo participated in a sanggyeonnye ceremony with his Boyanggwan, marking their first meeting. This event was memorialized in a detailed folding screen, a unique documentary painting. King Jeongjo prioritized this event due to Munhyo's significance, lacking an heir until his birth. The screen, noted for its detailed depiction of figures, employed the baechae painting technique and holds a distinctive place in Korean art history as the sole known depiction of this rite.