The Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology

Preface: Taoist Rituals in the Goryeo Royal Court

It is well known that the kingdom of Goryeo (918–1392) was a Buddhist nation, and that Buddhism had a profound influence on all aspects of Goryeo society. However, according to the official record of Goryeo state rites listed in Goryeosa (高麗史, History of Goryeo), the Taoist ritual of choje (醮祭) or chorye (醮禮), a sacrifice offered to the stars, was performed quite often (Kim Haeyeong 2003, 20-31).1 In the Goryeo Dynasty, most Taoist rituals were performed in the form of chincho (親醮), in which the king personally conducted the ritual as a priest, praying for good fortune for himself, the royal family, and the entire nation. Since Taoist rituals were closely related to the royal family, those who were close to the king prepared the cost and necessities for the rituals.

Records from Goryeosa indicate that chincho rituals were carried out intensively during specific periods. As seen in Table 1, chincho was performed quite frequently during the reigns of King Yejong and King Uijong, before the number of performances significantly fell during and following the reign of King Myeongjong. The sharp plunge in the number of performances of chincho, a symbol of royal power, can probably be attributed to the start of the military regime in 1170. But the ritual returned to prominence during the reign of King Gojong, with the number of performances continuing to rise during the ensuing reigns of King Wonjong and King Chungryeol.

Goryeo people performed choje to pray to the sun, moon, and stars (日月星辰) for a variety of wishes, including longevity, fortune, the happiness of the royal family, rain during a drought, a good harvest, cures from diseases, prevention of natural disasters, and victory in war. Though it is difficult to ascertain exactly how choje was performed during the Goryeo Dynasty, the following records from the early Joseon Dynasty provide a brief outline of the ritual:

This record shows that choje had been performed in the evening until 1413, when the time of the ritual was moved to 3:00 am. Another record gives more details:

Since this record indicates that the Taoist rite samgyechoje already had a long history by the 15^th year of King Seongjong (r. 1470-1494), it is assumed that choje had been performed in a similar way since the Goryeo Dynasty.

This paper examines how Taoist rituals, which were performed in the royal court as significant state rites, influenced the production of Goryeo celadon. Taoist rituals were performed throughout the Goryeo Dynasty, most intensively during the 12^th and 13^th centuries. This paper investigates how Taoism affected the celadon production of this period, particularly in terms of the characteristics of celadon wares of this time. In order to analyze the Taoist influence, the shapes and designs of Goryeo celadon are compared with literary works, Taoist paintings, mural paintings, and relics excavated from the tombs of Chinese Taoist masters of the Jin and Yuan Dynasties. In addition, various inscriptions on Goryeo celadon wares are interpreted, to explore how those inscribed wares were related to Taoist rituals and contemporaneous events.

Taoist Influence on the Decoration of Goryeo Celadon

Little research has considered the implications and origins of Goryeo celadon made in the shape of religious symbols (e.g., symbols of Taoism, Buddhism, or Confucianism). While some pieces of figurative celadon have been reviewed for their association with Taoism, very few studies have yet examined how Taoism influenced the shapes and designs of Goryeo celadon. This section reviews the connection between Taoism and the characteristics and symbolism of certain figurative celadon wares, as well as the cranes-and-clouds design.

Among the various types of Goryeo celadon, figurative celadon best exemplifies the influence of Taoism. Specifically, Goryeo figurative celadon was sometimes made in the shape of figures or motifs derived from Taoism. For example, Figure 1 shows a celadon pitcher in the form of a seated Taoist immortal. The figure wears a crown decorated with a bird and holds a plate full of peaches in both hands. Both the crown decorated with a bird and the peaches are attributes of the Taoist goddess Xiwangmu (西王母), and they are commonly found in the paintings and the blue-and-white porcelains of the Yuan Dynasty. Figure 2 shows a porcelain figure group from the Yuan Dynasty, one of three such groups from a tomb datable to 1276,2 featuring Xiwangmu, who wears a crown decorated with a bird, with a crane and two young attendants, each holding a plate full of peaches, beside her. The decoration is in underglaze iron-brown, with a touch of blue in the ruyi pectoral worn by Xiwangmu. An earlier depiction of Xiwangmu can be seen in Figure 3, which shows a mural painting of the Liao Dynasty from a tomb dated 923, showing the goddess descending from heaven on a cloud, trailed by three Taoist maidens (仙女). Although damage to the area around the goddess’s head makes it impossible to identify whether she has a bird decoration on her crown, she is certainly holding a peach in her hands (Fig. 3a). Obviously, the male figure depicted in the ewer (Fig. 1) cannot be Xiwangmu, but it is considered to be a Taoist deity, reverently holding a peach while sitting among the clouds.

Fig. 1. Celadon ewer in the shape of a Taoist immortal (靑瓷人物形注子). 12^th century. Height- 28.0 cm. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 2. Blue-and-white porcelain figure of Xiwangmu (靑畫白瓷西王母像), from Hangzhou (杭州), Zhejiang (浙江) Province. Yuan Dynasty. Height- 19.5 cm. (Southern Song Dynasty Guan Kiln Museum [南宋官窑博物馆]).

Fig. 3. Painting of Xiwangmu (西王母圖), from M1 at Baoshancun in Dongshaburitaixiang, Ar Horqin Banner, Inner Mongolia. Liao Dynasty (923). Photograph from Complete Collection of Murals Unearthed in China Vol. 3: Inner Mongolia (中國出土壁畫全集 3 內蒙古). (Beijing: Beijing Science Press, 2012).

Other Goryeo celadon wares taking the form of Taoist deities and immortals include a water dropper shaped like a standing immortal (Fig. 4) and a bird-shaped ewer (Fig. 5). The latter features a crowned Taoist immortal (神仙) holding a bowl and riding on a nan (鸞, luan in Chinese, the female counterpart of the phoenix, feng 鳯), a mythical bird from Chinese legend, frequently mentioned in the poetry and lyrics of the Goryeo Dynasty. Notably, all three of the celadon figures are wearing robes with sleeves trimmed with a small feather pattern (Figs. 1, 4 and 5). The same feather decoration can also be seen in the hem of the sleeves of Xiwangmu in the Liao mural painting (Fig. 3), as well as on the sleeves of the figures in Nine Taoist Saints (Southern Song Dynasty, late 12^th century) (Fig. 6), representing the Seven Stars in the Northern Dipper (北斗七星), the highest Taoist deity. Taoist immortals (仙人) could fly, and they were called by names that compared them to feathers, such as wugaek (羽客), wuryu (羽流), wusa (羽士), and wuin (羽人). The same names were often used to refer to Taoist masters as well. The feather-like trim of the robe appears to have been a visual embodiment of this concept. Another notable similarity between the robes is that they have two scarves that are tied like a ribbon at the back and then flow to both sides, as seen in both the Goryeo water dropper (Fig. 4) and the Taoist maidens in the Liao mural painting (Fig. 3).

Fig. 1a. Side view of Fig. 1

Fig. 4. Celadon water dropper in the shape of a Taoist immortal (靑磁人物形硯滴). 12^th century. Height- 14.5 cm. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 5. Bird-shaped celadon ewer with a crowned rider holding a bowl (靑瓷乘鸞人物形注子). 12^th century. Height- 21.4 cm. (Art Institute of Chicago).

Fig. 6. Nine Taoist Saints. Southern Song Dynasty. 112.5 x 54.1 cm. Hogonji Temple, Shiga (滋賀縣 寶巖寺). Photograph from New History of World Art Vol. 6: Southern Song Dynasty and Jin (世界美術大全集 東洋編 第6卷 南宋᠊金) Fig. 61. (Tokyo: Shogakukan, 2000).

The most popular design of Goryeo celadon was the cranes-and-clouds design, which first appeared in the 12^th century. This motif was applied through various techniques, such as incising, relief, inlay, and painting with black and white clay. Regardless of the decorative technique, the cranes-and-clouds design of Goryeo celadon was expressed like a painting, with cranes flying between clouds in the sky (Figs. 7 and 8). Similar designs can also be found in Chinese celadon wares from the Yaozhou (耀州) kilns and Longquan (龍泉) kilns, although they appear less frequently than in Goryeo celadon, and feature a somewhat different expression of the cranes and clouds (Fig. 9). The best Goryeo example is the maebyeong (plum vase) in Figure 10, with cranes flying in all directions in a pattern reminiscent of Auspicious Cranes (瑞鶴圖卷, Fig. 11) by Emperor Huizong of the Northern Song Dynasty (宋徽宗, r. 1101-1125).

Fig. 7. Shard of celadon bowl incised with cranes-and-clouds design (靑瓷陰刻雲鶴紋盤片). 12^th century. Diameter (fragmentary)- 29.7 cm. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 8. Shard of celadon bowl incised and engraved with cranes-and-clouds design (靑瓷陽陰刻雲鶴紋碗片). 12^th century. Height (fragmentary)- 6.2 cm. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 9. Yaozhou ware celadon bowl with molded cranes-and-clouds design (靑瓷陽刻雲鶴紋碗). Northern Song Dynasty (12^th century). Height- 7.3cm, Diameter (mouth)- 20.7 cm. (Shanxi Museum).

Fig. 10. Celadon maebyeong inlaid with cranes-and-clouds design (靑瓷象嵌雲鶴紋梅甁). 13^th century. Height- 41.7 cm. (Gansong Art Museum).

Fig. 11. Auspicious Cranes (瑞鶴圖卷) by Emperor Huizong (徽宗). Northern Song Dynasty (1112). Color on silk. Height- 51.0 cm. (Liaoning Provincial Museum).

The cranes-and-clouds design is believed to have first been used in Goryeo celadon in the 12^th century, but no research has yet attempted to uncover the origin or meaning of the design. In general, cranes have commonly been used to symbolize longevity: notably, a number of literary works from the Goryeo Dynasty feature Taoist immortals riding cranes or the mythical nan. For instance, the lyrics of Hwangungak (還宮樂, songs played when the king returns to the palace after having attended a feast) tell of immortals riding on cranes and nan, who present the king with the elixir of eternal life (仙丹):

Also, the poem “Plum Blossom” (梅花) by the Goryeo literatus Yi Inro (李仁老, 1152-1220) concerns a character who wants to reach the abode of the immortals (瑤臺), riding on a crane:

The use of the cranes-and-clouds design as a Taoist symbol is also evidenced by relics excavated from the tombs of two Taoist masters, Yan Deyuan (閻德源, 1094-1189) of the Jin Dynasty and Feng Daozhen (馮道眞, 1189-1265) of the Yuan Dynasty. Yan Deyuan was abbot of the Taoist temple Yuxuguan (玉虛觀) in Xijing (西京, present-day Datong, Shanxi Province), and the inscription on his tombstone attests to his status among the Taoists of the Jin Dynasty. According to the inscription, he was revered like a god by people of all classes, and he was honored by the royal court with the title Yuliuzhizong (羽流之宗), which was given to the leading masters of Taoism. The relics from his tomb include a hechangyi (鶴氅衣, crane’s-down garment), the garment of a Taoist master (Fig. 12), as well as other clothes, all of which were densely embroidered with cranes-and-clouds designs. The cranes and clouds embroidered on the clothes of Yan Deyuan (Fig. 12a) are quite similar to those engraved and incised on the fragmentary 12^th-century Goryeo celadon bowl (Fig. 8a).

Fig. 12. Robe of a Taoist master, from the tomb of Yan Deyuan (閻德源). Jin Dynasty. Songzhuang (宋庄), Datong (大同), Shanxi (山西) Province. Photograph from Wenwu (文物, Cultural Relics, 4: 1-13, Fig. 2).

Fig. 12a. Detail.

Fig. 8a. Detail.

The cranes-and-clouds design also adorns the wooden coffin and the ceiling of the burial chamber of the tomb of Feng Daozhen, located in Songzhuang (宋庄), Datong, Shanxi Province (Figs. 13 and 14). Feng Daozhen was an especially revered Taoist master, who served as the abbot of a Taoist temple (Longxiang Wanshougong, 龍翔萬壽宮) and the leader of the Quanzhenjiao Sect (全眞敎). The cranes and clouds painted on the walls of Feng’s tomb are similar to those inlaid on the shard from a Goryeo celadon maebyeong (Fig. 15).

Fig. 13. Cranes-and-clouds design in mural painting, from the tomb of Feng Daozhen (馮道眞). Yuan Dynasty. Songzhuang, Datong (大同), Shanxi (山西) Province. Photograph from Wenwu (文物, Cultural Relics, 10: 34-42, Fig. 4).

Fig. 14. Cranes-and-clouds design on the cover of wooden coffin, from the tomb of Feng Daozhen (馮道眞). Yuan Dynasty. Songzhuang, Datong (大同), Shanxi (山西) Province. Photograph from Wenwu (文物, Cultural Relics, 10: 34-42, Fig. 10).

Fig. 15. Shard of celadon maebyeong inlaid with cranes-and-clouds design (靑瓷雲鶴紋梅甁片), from kiln site in Yucheon-ri, Buan. 12^th century. (National Museum of Korea).

The fact that the cranes-and-clouds design is prominently featured on a variety of relics (e.g., clothes, mural painting, and wooden coffin) from the tombs of leading Taoist masters from the Jin and the Yuan Dynasties demonstrates that cranes and clouds were recognized as Taoist symbols. Therefore, the cranes-and-clouds design that appears so frequently on Goryeo celadon of the 12^th century is likely to be a Taoist motif that represents the world of immortals. Unlike similar designs on Chinese celadon, the cranes-and-clouds designs on Goryeo celadon are highly pictorial, which necessitates an investigation of the relationship between Goryeo celadon and the other highly pictorial works of the era, such as textiles and mural paintings.

Goryeo Celadon in Taoist Rituals

Research into the inscriptions on Goryeo celadon has revealed a considerable number of references to Taoism. Celadon wares related to Taoism were typically made as ordinary vessels (e.g., cups and dishes); they were usually undecorated, and both the style of foot and the firing process were similar to regular Goryeo celadon. Given these similarities, it seems likely that Taoist-influenced celadon vessels were produced intensively during certain periods of the Goryeo Dynasty. Such vessels could certainly be vital research materials for the study of Goryeo celadon used in Taoist rituals in the royal court, an area that has thus far been neglected in the existing studies.

Thus far, research has identified more than ten pieces of Goryeo celadon with painted, incised, or inlaid inscriptions reading either sojeon (燒錢) or sojeonsaek (燒錢色) (Figs. 16 and 17). While the existing research has not provided much explanation about the meaning of sojeonsaek, according to Goryeosa, the term is related to the prohibition of 1278:

Fig. 16. Celadon cup with inlaid inscription of sojeon (燒錢). Late 13^th century. Height- 5.1 cm, Diameter (mouth)- 10.1 cm. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 17. Celadon cup with inlaid inscription of sojeonsaek (燒錢色). Late 13^th century. Height- 5.8 cm, Diameter (mouth)- 7.9 cm. (National Museum of Korea).

This record shows that, despite the general prohibition, alcohol would be supplied for specific special events by two offices—Yangonseo and its affiliate Joyangdojego—and that a third office, Sojeonsaek would be charged with making the official request for alcohol for choje and properly displaying wine cups on the altar. Most of the surviving celadon wares with the sojeon inscription are cups, which would indicate that they were the cups placed on the altar for choje.

The following record from Taejo sillok provides further evidence that during the Goryeo Dynasty Sojeonsaek was an institution responsible for Taoist rituals (Taejo sillok, first year of King Taejo, 1392):

This record clearly shows that Sojeonsaek had indeed served as one of the official sites for choje during the Goryeo Dynasty.

Sojeon refers to the ritual of burning paper money, which was performed on Jungwonjeol (中元節, the 15^th day of the seventh month in the lunar calendar). It was believed that the ghosts and spirits of the underworld enter the realm of the living on this particular day, so people would prepare paper money for the spirits of their ancestors. They burned this paper money during the sojeon ritual, in order to console the spirits of the deceased and let them return safely to the underworld.

Only two of the royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty have the stone tables for the sojeon ritual (Fig. 18)—Geonwolleung (健元陵, tomb of King Taejo, 1408) and Heolleung (獻陵, tomb of Queen Wongyeong [1420] and Taejong [1422])3—which is most likely related to the fact that Taoist rituals were frequently performed in the royal court until the early days of the Joseon Dynasty. There is also a line by the poet Kim Siseup (1435-1493) about “mourning before the tomb by burning paper money” (神道燒錢哀似隕), which would seem to indicate that the sojeon ritual was performed not only in the royal court, but also among families of the ruling class.

Fig. 18. Stone table for sojeon ritual, from the tomb of King Taejo (健元陵 燒錢臺石). 1408. (Author’s photograph).

Other celadon vessels that were used in choje have been found, bearing inscriptions of Chinese characters such as chilwonjeonbae (七元前排, ‘place before the seven primordial ones’), sibiryojeonbae (十一曜前排, ‘place before the eleven luminaries’), and cheonhwangjeonbae (天皇前排, ‘place before the Heavenly Emperor) (Figs. 19-21). Chilwon (Fig. 19) refers to Bukdodaeseong Chilwonseonggun (北斗大聖 七元星君), the Taoist deity of the highest rank. Also known as the Seven Stars of the Northern Dipper, this god was believed to control people’s fate. Sibiryo (Fig. 20) refers to eleven celestial bodies: the sun, the moon, five planets (Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn); and four stars (Gyedo [計覩], Nahu [羅睺], Wolpae [月孛], and Jagi [紫氣]). In Taoism, Sibiryo represents all the stars of all the constellations, and the sacrifice for Sibiryo is called Sibiryocho (十一曜醮). Cheonhwang (天皇, Heavenly Emperor, Fig. 21) is a high-ranking star deity located at the center of the Northern Dipper. The term jeonbae (前排) means “in the front row,” so the celadon wares with these inscriptions must be the ritual wares presented before Chilwon, Sibiryo, and Cheonhwang during choje. The celadon bottle (Fig. 21) is inscribed in black inlay on the four sides of the body, with these four Chinese characters: cheon 天, hwang 皇, jeon 前, and bae 排.

Fig. 19. Celadon dish with inlaid inscription of chilwonjeonbae (七元前排). Late 13^th century. Height- 3.3 cm, Diameter (mouth)- 12.8 cm. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 20. Celadon dish with inlaid inscription of sibiryojeonbae (十一曜前排). Late 13^th century. Height- 3.0 cm, Diameter (mouth)- 12.1 cm. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 21. Celadon bottle with inlaid inscription of cheonhwangjeonbae (天皇前排). Height- 19.3 cm, Diameter (mouth)- 8.7 cm, Diameter (foot)- 6.8 cm. (Gangjin Celadon Museum).

The Taoist deities relevant to these inscribed celadon vessels can be seen in the Goryeo painting The Descent of Tejaprabha Buddha (熾盛光如來往臨圖, late 13^th-14^th century) in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Fig. 22). In this painting, Tejaprabha Buddha (Buddha of blazing light) and the two attendants Sūrya-prabha (日光菩薩, Sunlight Bodhisattva) and Candraprabha (月光菩薩, Moonlight Bodhisattva) are descending to the earth, surrounded by heavenly stars represented as celestial deities, including Cheonhwangdaeje (天皇大帝), Sibiryo, the Nine Stars of the Northern Dipper (北斗九星), the 28 constellations (二十八宿), and the Six Stars of the Southern Dipper (南斗六星). All of the figures in this painting, with the exception of Buddha and the two Bodhisattvas, are depicted as Taoist deities called gwanbokjiphol (官服執笏, officials holding tablets), confirming that Taoism still exerted a powerful influence on the Korean peninsula in the late 13^th and 14^th century.

Fig. 22. Detail of outline diagram of Descent of Tejaprabha Buddha (熾盛光如來往臨圖). Late 13^th century-14^th century. Goryeo Dynasty. (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). ❶ Tejaprabha Buddha (熾盛光如來, Buddha of blazing light), ❷ Suryaprabha (日光菩薩, Sunlight Bodhisattva), ❸ Candraprabha (月光菩薩, Moonlight Bodhisattva), ❹ Cheonhwangdaeje (天皇大帝), ❺ Sibiryo (十一曜), ❻ the Nine Stars of the Northern Dipper (北斗九星)

Figure 23 shows a celadon cup with the inscription samgwan (三官), which refers to the three divine officials of heaven (天官), earth (地官), and water (水官) (Fig. 23). In Taoism, heaven, earth, and water are believed to be the three basic elements of the universe and are personified as officials. Sangwonjeol (上元節, 15^th day of the first month) is the birthday of Jamidaeje (紫微大帝; Chinese: ziweidadi, Purple Tenuity Emperor), the heavenly ruler of the Pole Star. The birthday of Cheongheodaeje (淸虛大帝), the official of earth, who is believed to forgive sins, is Jungwonjeol (中元節, 15^th day of the seventh month), also known as gwijeol (鬼節, day of the ghosts). Hawonjeol (下元節, 15^th day of the tenth month) is the birthday of Dongeumdaeje (洞陰大帝), the official of water, who is believed to drive out bad luck. Other celadon dishes and cups have been found with the inlaid inscriptions cheon (天, heaven) or ji (地, earth), and these are thought to have been used in rituals on Sangwonjeol or Jungwonjeol.

Fig. 23. Celadon cup with inlaid inscription of samgwan (三官). Late 13^th century. Height- 6.8 cm, Diameter (mouth)- 10.3 cm, Diameter (foot)- 3.4 cm. (Gangjin Celadon Museum).

Most of the remaining celadon wares inscribed with cheon, ji, or gwi (鬼, ghosts) are round dishes and cups. These vessels might have been associated with Samgyecho (Samgye 三界 refers to the three worlds of heaven, earth, and humanity), or else they might have been used to perform choje on Sangwonjeol or Jungwonjeol (Figs. 24-26). They have no decoration, other than the inscriptions in the interior and on the outer surface of the body. They were fired on silica supports, indicating that they were high-quality celadon. Samgyecho was performed as a Taoist ritual in the royal court not only during the Goryeo Dynasty, but also during the early Joseon Dynasty.

Fig. 24. Celadon dish with inlaid inscription of cheon (天). Early 14^th century. Height- 3.5 cm, Diameter (mouth)- 11.8 cm. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 25. Celadon dish with inlaid inscription of ji (地). Late 13^th century. Height-3.5 cm, Diameter (mouth)- 12.0 cm. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 26. Celadon cup with inlaid inscription of gwi (鬼). Early 14^th century. Height- 5.4 cm, Diameter (mouth)- 8.7 cm. (National Museum of Korea).

Production of Celadon in Relation with Taoism

This chapter focuses on the production of two types of Goryeo celadon: celadon with Taoist aesthetic features (e.g., vessels shaped like Taoist figures or decorated with the cranes-and-clouds design) and inscribed celadon cups and dishes used for Taoist rituals. Specifically, I examine how the production of such celadon objects may have changed during those periods when Taoist rituals were most intensively performed in the Goryeo royal court.

Celadon wares shaped like Taoist figures or decorated with the cranes-and-clouds design are estimated to have been produced primarily in the 12^th century. As seen in the previous chapter, that time period saw a sharp rise in the number of performances of chincho, particularly during the reigns of King Yejong (r. 1105-1122) and King Uijong (r. 1146-1170). King Yejong expended considerable effort to promote Taoism. For instance, he ordered the teaching of the Daodejing (道德經), actively imported Taoist elements and ideas from the Song Dynasty, and built Goryeo’s first Taoist temple, Bokwongung. King Uijong was also a strong supporter of Taoism, who frequently held choje and built several Taoist halls specifically for the king’s own use (e.g., Gieunsaek [祈恩色], Daechosaek [大醮色], Noindang [老人堂]). Taoism maintained a powerful presence under the reign of King Sinjong (r. 1197-1204), when the Taoist Choe Dang (崔讜, 1135-1211) formed Girohoe (耆老會, a gathering of retired elderly officials) and lived in free retirement with his fellow retired officials. According to Goryeosa, Choe Dang and his fellows were considered “immortals on earth” (地上仙), and their images were engraved on a rock so that they would be remembered by the world. As the belief in Taoism prevailed in the 12^th century, the visual representation of Taoist immortals also became more popular, and this trend seems to have been reflected in the increased production of celadon wares shaped like Taoist immortals. In addition, there were frequent exchanges between Goryeo and the Jin Dynasty during the 12^th century, and it is possible that Taoist motifs (including the cranes-and-clouds design) were imported into Goryeo at this time.4 As already noted, the cranes-and-clouds design can be seen on clothes excavated from the tomb of Jin Taoist master Yan Deyuan (閻德源, 1094-1189).

Goryeosa provides some interesting information regarding the second type of Taoist celadon vessels, inscribed cups and dishes used in Taoist rituals. The celadon bowl with the inscription chilwonjeonbae (Fig. 19) was probably used during the choje offered to Chilwon, the Seven Stars of the Northern Dipper. According to Goryeosa, that particular ritual was performed four times during the reign of King Uijong (in 1152 and three times in 1169), and twice during the reign of King Gojong (in 1253 and 1254) (See Table 2).

Goryeosa records eight performances of Sibiryocho, which is related to the celadon wares inscribed with sibiryojeonbae. Four of those performances occurred during the reign of King Uijong, while the other four happened around the last quarter of the 13^th century (i.e., fifth and eleventh months of 1272, fifth month of 1274, and twelfth month of 1288, see Table 3).

Goryeosa records 39 performances of Samgyecho—the ceremony associated with celadon wares inscribed with cheon, ji, or gwi—including five times during the reign of King Gojong, six times during the reign of King Wonjong, and ten times during the reign of King Chungryeol. According to the text, sixteen of the Samgyecho ceremonies (41 percent of the total) occurred around the late 13^th century, from 1260 to 1308.

Thus, the records from Goryeosa show that choje rituals related to the inscribed celadon were performed mostly from the late 12^th to the late 13^th century. Those inscribed vessels share many similarities in terms of their shape, the style of foot, the location of the inscription, and the firing technique, leading experts to believe that they were all produced around the same time, in the late 13^th century, during the reigns of King Wonjong (r. 1259-1274) and King Chungryeol (r. 1274-1308). The records show that Taoist rituals were frequently performed by the king during the 12^th century, and yet there is no evidence that celadon ritual wares with inscriptions were produced during this period. So the question is, why did these inscribed vessels suddenly appear in the late 13^th century?

To address this question, it is first necessary to know what types of vessels were used as ritual wares for Taoist ceremonies in the 12^th century. Again, Goryeosa offers some valuable information on this topic:

As mentioned, choje was most frequently performed during the reign of King Uijong, but these records show that the offices responsible for Taoist rituals (e.g., Dojego or Dojaego) could not afford the expenses for the frequent performances of choje. Hence, some officials close to the king (e.g., Naesi and Hwansi) exploited people to acquire and produce ornaments and vessels made of gold, silver, or jade, which were then presumably used for Taoist rituals in the 12^th century.

Then why were those vessels made from luxurious materials suddenly replaced by celadon wares in the late 13^th century? The answer may be found in another Goryeosa record, regarding the 45^th year of King Gojong (1258):

The above record shows that Jeongsasaek was established in 1258 to resume choje, which had long been suspended. According to the records, choje was performed 12 times during the 46-year reign of King Gojong: six times from 1220 to 1228, and six times from 1251 to 1259. Thus, it would seem that the performance of choje was suspended for about 22 years, from 1229 to 1250. Notably, this period coincides with the Mongol invasion of 1230, which forced the king to move the capital to Ganghwado Island, a likely reason why the king could not conduct Taoist rituals for more than two decades.

King Gojong resumed choje in 1251, but apparently the vessels and implements for choje had not been secured even by 1258, so necessary items were temporarily acquired or borrowed from the families of powerful officials. Goryeo was still at war with the Mongols in 1258, and the state was short on the necessary items for choje. In 1259, a peace treaty was signed with the Mongols and the Goryeo capital returned to Gaegyeong, but evidently the royal court was still lacking the proper implements for choje. Hence, the inscribed vessels for Taoist rituals were produced during the ensuing reigns of King Wonjong and King Chungryeol, when choje were frequently held.

Interestingly, while the ritual wares used during the previous century were made from precious metals or jade, the vessels produced for Taoist rituals in the 13^th century were made from celadon, probably because celadon was more abundant and less expensive than those other materials. Therefore, the sudden production of inscribed celadon wares for Taoist rituals in the late 13^th century can seemingly be explained by the war with the Mongols, which suspended the king’s performance of choje, caused financial difficulties for the royal family, and made it more difficult to collect taxes and tributes.

Conclusion

This paper has examined the influence of Taoism on Goryeo celadon, especially in regard to how the production of celadon vessels related to Taoism was affected by the fluctuating performance of Taoist rites by the Goryeo kings. There are two main types of Goryeo celadon related to Taoism: celadons in the form of Taoist figures or decorated with Taoist motifs, and celadon vessels inscribed with the names of Taoist deities or rituals. Both types were produced in conjunction with the royal family’s generous sponsorship of Taoism, but the first type seems to have been produced mostly in the 12^th century, while the second type was produced largely in the late 13^th century. According to historical records, Taoist rituals were most frequently performed in the royal court during the reigns of King Yejong and King Uijong in the 12^th century and during the reign of King Chungryeol in the late 13^th century.

Among the celadon wares of the 12^th century, some of the aesthetic elements that reflect the influence of Taoism include bird decorations on the crown, peaches, and feather-like decorations on the hem of the robe sleeves. Also, existing research has largely overlooked the Taoist roots of the most popular motif of Goryeo celadon, the cranes-and-clouds design. Given that Goryeo literature of the 12^th century often mentions cranes in relation to Taoist immortals, and that the cranes-and-clouds design was expressed in relics excavated from the tombs of influential Taoist masters of the contemporaneous Jin and Yuan Dynasties, I conclude that the cranes-and-clouds design on Goryeo celadon represented the world of Taoist immortals.

In the late 13^th century, many celadon wares were produced with inscriptions related to Taoist rituals (e.g., sojeon, sojeonsaek, chilwonjeonbae, Sibiryojeonbae, cheonhwangjeonbae, samgung, cheon, ji, gwi), and these vessels are thought to have been used in Taoist rituals. Taoist rituals were not performed by the Goryeo royal court from 1229 to 1250 due to the war against the Mongols, but the rituals were resumed in 1251 (the 38^th year of King Gojong). However, at that time, the court was still lacking the necessary implements for choje. Historical records show that the office responsible for choje was re-established in 1258, after which time choje began to be performed more frequently. Thus, the inscribed celadon ritual wares were almost certainly produced in the late 13^th and early 14^th century, during the reigns of King Wonjong (r. 1259-1274) and King Chungryeol (r. 1274-1308). In the 12^th century, ritual wares made from precious metals or jade had been used for choje, but the vessels produced for those rituals in the late 13^th century were made from celadon. This change is thought to be due to the long years of war, which had interrupted the royal performance of choje, exhausted the kingdom’s finances, and destroyed the existing system of tributary taxation.