Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology Vol.17
2023. 01.
2577-9842
2951-4983
INTRODUCE
- Monk Artisans: Producers of Buddhist Art
- Research on monk artisans and Buddhist art of the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) made great strides between the publication of Korean Buddhist Paintings (40 volumes) (1996-2007) and the publication of the Report of Korean Buddhist Heritage (2002-2014). During this period, almost all relevant Buddhist sculptures, paintings, and ritual implements in the possession of temples across Korea were surveyed. Moreover, with the additional publication of related documentary materials such as the balwonmun (發願文, votive texts), the records of completion of statues (造成記, K. joseonggi), and the records of paintings (畫記, K. hwagi), active research was also conducted on the works of monk artisans and their activities. Notably, the study of votive texts secretly enshrined deep inside the statues led to much progress in research on Buddhist sculptures based on individual monk artisans. The special exhibition Monk Artisans of the Joseon Dynasty: Buddhist Sculptures and Paintings, held at the National Museum of Korea (December 7, 2001 – March 6, 2022), was planned based on research results accumulated since the beginning of the 2000s. A symposium on the most important monk artisans who produced sculptures and paintings was held on December 18, 2021. On the occasion, the need to introduce these research outcomes to the international audience was discussed, and hence this edition of the Journal of Korean Art & Archaeology features the special topic of monk artisans of the Joseon Dynasty. Basis for Research on Buddhist Art during the Late Joseon Dynasty: Documentary Materials A wealth of documentary materials exists on the circumstances regarding the production of Buddhist art during the late Joseon Dynasty. They give researchers detailed information on the artworks, including not only the date of production and place of enshrinement, but also the names of the painters and sculptors, the patrons, and all the other people involved in their creation, as well as knowledge on the division of roles among artisans. These records have enabled researchers to gain an understanding of the changes in the works of the artisans concerned and the schools (流派, K. yupa) of Buddhist art. Additionally, the lists of donors (施主者, K. sijuja) have yielded diverse information on the patrons’ social position and region of origin, as well as on donations by family groups. In other words, with so many documentary materials for reference, it is now possible to gain a comprehensive understanding of all the artistic and religious activities regarding the creation, enshrinement, and worship of Buddhist works of art, including the people who donated for them or commissioned them, the painters and sculptors, and the original settings of paintings and sculptures. Basis for Research on Joseon Buddhist Art: Maintaining Religious Context among Artworks Research on the Buddhist art of the Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392) and earlier periods involved applying various methods, including those focused on the viewpoint of art history looking at the history of style and iconography, as well as the political and economic history perspective, the social history perspective, and the perspective of ideological history. However, because most Buddhist artworks have been found removed from their original place of enshrinement, it has been difficult to even think of studying them in the context of their connection to works inside a temple hall. In the case of Buddhist artworks dating to the late Joseon period, however, many of them remain in their original settings, making it possible to grasp the relationship between works inside the same space. Owing to the documentary materials available, we can study the rituals conducted inside the temple hall, and the way the works used in the rituals relate to each other using much more diverse approaches than those used for Buddhist art of the Goryeo Dynasty and earlier periods. Research on the Schools of Monk Artisans Due to a great increase in temple reconstruction during the seventeenth century, different schools of monk painters and monk sculptors in charge of producing Buddhist art began to emerge. Typically, a number of monk artisans worked together to create a single painting or sculpture, and each monk in the group performed a different task under a division-of-labor system. It is thought that the monks naturally formed master-disciple relationships and evolved into “schools,” or groups called yupa, as they worked and trained together. The schools of monk sculptors, founded during the first half of the seventeenth century and active through the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, were each based in a particular region, and the monks belonging to each school worked together to produce Buddhist images. Research so far has identified around ten large monk-sculptor schools and twenty to thirty smaller schools that were active around the same time. Though it was very rare for several schools to work together, collaborative projects were carried out in exceptional cases. Some examples include Buddhist projects at large representative temples led by an elderly monk, such as Byeogam Gakseong (碧巖覺性), or work at temples closely connected to the royal court, such as Jasusa Temple and Insusa Temple in Seoul, and Yongjusa Temple in Hwaseong. Research on monk-sculptor schools has so far identified the major schools and leading sculptors in each school as follows: the Wono School (Wono and Gakmin), the Hyeonjin-Cheongheon School (Hyeonjin, Cheongheon, Seungil, Eunghye, and Huijang), the Suyeon School (Suyeon, Yeongcheol, Unhye, and Gyeongrim), the Eungwon-Ingyun School (Eungwon, Ingyun and Samin), the Beopryeong School (Beopryeong, Hyehui, and Joneung), the Muyeom School (Muyeom and Haesim), the Daneung School (Daneung and Takmil), the Seungho School (Seungho and Sujong), the Saeknan School (Saeknan, Chungok, Chobyeon and Hacheon), and the Jinyeol School (Jinyeol, Sangjeong, Gyecho and Bonghyeon). Along with the study of the works shown by extant records left by these schools, attempts have been made to restore works for which no records remain, based on an estimation of the monks who took part in creating them. The study of the schools of monk painters has taken the form of research to identify the lineages of the monk painters based in different regions. Examples of such painters active during the seventeenth century are Singyeom, Myeongok, and Eungyeol, who were active in Chungcheong-do Province; and Cheonsin, who was active in Jeolla-do Province. During the eighteenth century—when the schools grew very active—the Uigyeom School (Geungcheok, Saekmin, Chaein, Pyeongsam, Seungyun, Hwayeon, Kwaeyun, Doil, Cheonyeo, and Naewon), based in Jeolla-do Province, created a new style of Buddhist painting. In the Gyeongsang-do region, famous schools were the Uigyun School (Chejun, Seokmin, and Kwaemin) based at Donghwasa Temple in Daegu; the Segwan School at Jikjisa Temple in Gimcheon; and the Imhan School (Pogwan, Yuseong, and Jiyeon) at Tongdosa Temple in Yangsan. During the nineteenth century, monk painters worked primarily in the provinces of Gyeongsang-do and Gyeonggi-do. The monk Eungsang, originally from Gimyongsa Temple in Mungyeong, formed an artists’ lineage and became the head of the Sabulsan School, which produced artists such as Sewon, Jincheol, and Gijeon. The Sanggyeom, Mingwan, and Yeonhong schools were active in the Gyeonggi-do region, and in 1790 took charge of the paintings for Yongjusa Temple, the vow temple of King Jeongjo (正祖, r. 1776–1800). These schools produced artists such as Yeonghwan, Changhwa, and Eungseok in the latter half of the nineteenth century. They were followed by Cheollyu, Chugyeon, and Yakhyo between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and Munseong and Ilseop in the early twentieth century. Research on the Buddhist Iconography Buddhist temples built during the late Joseon Dynasty comprised not just the central hall but a cluster of several halls, and various sculptures and paintings were enshrined in each. That is, different Buddhist statues and Buddhist paintings were enshrined as separate objects of worship in the Daeungjeon (大雄殿, Main Hall), the Geungnakjeon (極樂殿, Hall of Paradise), the Eungjinjeon (應眞殿, Hall of Arhats), and the Myeongbujeon (冥府殿, Hall of Judgement), depending on the principal icon in each. The iconography of Joseon Buddhist paintings has always been a popular topic for research. Based on the sutras and ritual texts, in-depth iconographic research has been conducted on Buddhist paintings for worship, including paintings of the Buddhas Sakyamuni, Amitabha, Bhaisayaguru, and the bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara and Ksitigarbha, corresponding to the principal icon in the temple hall. However, Joseon Buddhist sculptures are not as diverse as paintings and show almost no change in iconography over time. Hence, there has been comparatively little interest in the iconography of Buddhist sculptures compared to Buddhist paintings. The Buddhas of the Three Directions (Sakyamuni in the center) in Daeungjeon, the Amitabha Triad in Geungnakjeon, the Ksitigarbha, and the Ten Kings of Hell in Myeongbujeon are common compositions of Buddhist images that are used almost without exception. However, the Buddhas of the Three Generations (Dipamkara, Sakyamuni, and Maitreya) enshrined with the Sixteen Arhats in Eungjinjeon is a special example that reflects the individuality that sets Joseon temples apart from Chinese temples. Study of Rituals and Buddhist Art In the study of Buddhist art of the late Joseon Dynasty—particularly Buddhist painting—the most outstanding results have been seen in research on the relationship between rituals and art. It is understood that during the late Jos…
Song Unsok Professor, Dongguk University
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GO TO KONGNPARK.COM- Song Unsok(Professor, Dongguk University)
Between 1996 and 2014, research on Joseon Dynasty Buddhist art advanced significantly, surveying most Buddhist artifacts across Korean temples. Key studies involved monk artisans, with notable progress attributed to examining votive texts in sculptures. The 2001–2022 National Museum of Korea exhibition highlighted these findings. Joseon Buddhist artworks' original settings facilitated contextual studies, unlike earlier periods. The 17th century saw monk artisan schools' development, producing distinct art styles. Future research aims for a comprehensive understanding of Joseon Buddhist art, integrating diverse elements.
- Jeong Myounghee(Curator, National Museum of Korea)
The Buddhist monk artisans of Korea have been integral to their cultural legacy since the Three Kingdoms period (57 BCE-668 CE). They have historically merged spiritual practices with significant artistic contributions, particularly during periods like the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) and the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), despite societal shifts towards Confucianism. Monk artisans, known for creating sculptures and paintings, differed from secular artisans in China and Japan because their practice involved collaboration and skill-sharing within their monastic lineages. The disciplines developed distinctive regional styles and engaged in national public works, adapting to evolving religious and social needs. They were recognized through various noble honorifics and contributed economically, such as through fundraising and temple support. Their influence extended beyond Buddhist purposes as they participated in secular art projects, shaping both religious and cultural outputs in significant ways. The legacy of these monk artisans is unique to Korean history, illustrating a rich interweaving of faith and craftsmanship.
- Heo Hyeong Uk(Curator, National Museum of Korea)
Following Japan's invasions of Korea (1592-1598 CE), the Joseon Buddhist community revitalized its artistic and architectural heritage, leading to a golden age for Korean Buddhist art. A self-sufficient system of monk artisans emerged, enabling them to create distinctively Korean Buddhist sculptures free from external influences. Prominent sculptors, like Daneung, became known for wooden Amitabha Buddha altarpieces that combined local traditions with Confucian elements from the Book of Changes. The Yongmunsa altarpiece exemplifies this synthesis, blending the belief in nine grades of rebirth from Pure Land Buddhism and Seon Buddhist principles, with hexagrams representing cosmic order from the Book of Changes. This reflects the broader trend of integrating Neo-Confucianism with Buddhism in late Joseon Korea, highlighting the openness and adaptability of Buddhist art during this era.
- Song Unsok(Professor, Dongguk University)
During the late Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), Buddhist sculptures were produced by monk-sculptor schools led by a head monk with assistant sculptors. Ghost-sculpting emerged as a method involving deputies or outsiders creating sculptures under the name of a head monk. This occurred in two forms: transitions within the same school and collaborations across different schools. Notably, the Muyeom and Unhye schools practiced ghost-sculpting during leadership transitions. Collaborations, though limited, involved departing or independent head monks working with other schools’ assistants, influencing stylistic continuity. Ghost-sculpting was transparent to temple authorities and donors, indicating its acceptance as a production method.
- Lee Yongyun(Assistant Professor, Academy of Korean Studies)
During the late Joseon Dynasty, while Buddhist art maintained traditional iconography, new elements also emerged, influenced by monastic lineages and personal qualities of monk-artisans. These lineages, descending from prominent monks like Samyeong Yujeong and Byeokam Gakseong, influenced temple projects post-Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-98). Relationships within monastic lineages significantly affected Buddhist art production, including monk Soyeong Singyeong’s and artists Daneung and Takmil’s collaborative works and the innovative contributions of painter Toeun Singyeom.
- Lee Hyun-tae(Curator, Gyeongju National Museum)
Recent excavations near Wolseong Fortress, Gyeongju, shed light on the extension of the Silla palace complex in the late 7th century CE. Analysis suggests that Wolji Pond and nearby areas, previously natural landscapes, played central roles in this expansion, aligning with the construction of a grander palace reflecting Tang influences. Wolji Pond, possibly previously known as Dongji Pond, became central to royal and state rituals linked to the dragon mythos, highlighting the significance of water management and royal authority.
- Kwon Yoonmi(Curator, Gongju National Museum)
The Silla gold crown, an emblem of ancient Korean culture, primarily found in tombs of the Silla state (57 BCE–935 CE), underwent a comprehensive conservation treatment. Six such crowns have been excavated, with notable findings from the Seobongchong Tomb in Gyeongju, revealing detailed manufacturing techniques and later modifications involving curved beads replacing spangles. This extensive conservation process aimed to correct deformations, ensure stability with modern reinforcements, and prepare the artifact for secure display and study, fostering future research on Silla's cultural heritage.