The Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology

INTRODUCE

Gyeongju

Ripples from the upheaval in the north fueled moves toward political union inside the Jinhan confederacy, with Saroguk emerging the final winner. Having long been the predominant state in Jinhan, Saroguk successfully pursued and achieved the goal of political dominion. The states confederated with Saroguk now lost their names and became subordinate regions. Meanwhile, Saroguk emerged as a totally new state in form and character and spanned a vast territory. Upon establishing a system of rule better suited to its new form, one of the first steps it took was to change the name of the confederacy from Jinhan to Silla. Moreover, the title of the supreme leader was switched from Isageum, meaning "one who has lived a long time," to Maripgan, which translates as "the highest among all chiefs." The territory occupied by the former Saroguk state naturally transitioned into the royal capital of Silla. The newly emerging ruling class began to build large tombs with high mounds to physically manifest their power and authority. Although the emergence of Silla demanded fundamental changes in the ruling system, the existing order was not totally transformed. Community factors remained strong at the bottom of society. Despite the proclamation of the new name of "Silla,” the former name "Saroguk" continued to be used as well. The centralization of power was tenuous and direct rule through the royal dispatch of officers to the different regions now incorporated into Silla was not achieved. Consequently, Silla had no choice but to practice a more indirect form of rule through powerful regional figures tied to the central authority. Such local leaders were not fully under the control of the central government, but held themselves in a semi-autonomous state. Although the clearly highest ruler in the country, the Maripgan had not yet risen to the status of a transcendental figure of absolute authority. Under these conditions, there were limitations on establishing a ruling order based on a centralized government with the king at the peak of the power structure. The complete erasure of the existing community-based ruling order would inevitably require a lengthy process. The period of more than one hundred years between the first half of the sixth century and the foundation of the Silla Kingdom in the fourth century is considered a time when the internal foundations were being faithfully laid to prepare for centralized rule. This is clearly confirmed in both written records and archaeological evidence, and can be surmised from the fact that the size of tumuli in Gyeongju increased and the grave goods buried with the deceased became more luxurious and diverse. The clear expansion of the quality and quantity of relics indicates that the economic foundations of the country were strengthening and centralizing. The gradual reorganization of this system seems inevitable. The intention was to focus political power on the king, the Maripgan. Around 530, the title of Maripgan was abandoned in favor of Daewang, meaning "great king," a reflection of the heightened status of the ruler. As the basis for the stable succession of the system of rule, the class system was revised and various government offices and positions were instituted, including a 17-level ranking system for government officials to ensure the establishment of the new class and bureaucratic systems. To provide an institutional framework for these measures, a national code of administration (the Yulyeong) was proclaimed and Buddhism was adopted as the national religion and ruling ideology. Throughout this process, the remnants of the previous order were gradually erased. It should be noted here that this was the point at which Silla's distinctive social ranking system, the Golpumje, or Bone Rank System, was instituted. This system not only enabled the ruling class to maintain their privileges, but also functioned as a mechanism for the political, social, and economic control of society as a whole. Silla society has hence been described as a "Golpumje society" or "Golpumje system society." As Buddhism took root in Silla, it provided ideological reinforcement for the ruling order established through the Bone Rank System. Of course, the basic structure and function of the Bone Rank System did not go completely unchanged, but with adjustments to accommodate political and social evolution the system was maintained until the fall of Silla. The third period is known as Unified Silla. Of course, "Unified Silla" is not a name that was applied or used at the time. As one of the ancient Three Kingdoms of Korea, Silla struggled constantly with Goguryeo and Baekje (18 BCE–660CE) over survival and political integration. With assistance from Tang dynasty Chinese forces, it eventually succeeded in overcoming both rival kingdoms in the mid-seventh century and launching a unified nation spanning the Korean Peninsula. This integration of the Three Kingdoms is seen as a milestone event in that it laid the foundations for a nation of people within the same region and of a single culture. In this sense, some take Silla's creation of a unified state as the dividing line in Korean history between ancient and medieval societies. The widely used term "Unified Silla" was created by modern historians out of a need to systematize the process of Silla's development based on its political unification of the Three Kingdoms. Hence Unified Silla fundamentally differs in nature to the terms Saroguk or Silla. Some opposed the name Unified Silla on the grounds that it does not reflect the actual circumstances. This view comes from a negative evaluation of Silla that it did not in fact unify the Three Kingdoms and that considers its entire development process to be improper. There are two main reasons underlying such a viewpoint. First, the Balhae Kingdom, based in territory formerly occupied by Goguryeo and claiming to be its successor, was founded in 698 and continued into the early tenth century. This means that applying "Unified" to Silla's name can be considered problematic. The second reason is that Silla allied with Tang China to conquer the nations within its own region. The unification process can thus be deemed tainted and the use of the word "Unified" in the name likewise inappropriate. Underlying these negative perceptions is remorse over the lost Goguryeo territory, since Silla failed to absorb the full extent of its rival's lands. Those who refuse to accept Silla's actions as unification or disparage it as an incomplete unification oppose the use of any related terminology in the name. Alternatives such as Daesilla (or "Great Silla") have been suggested. The views discussed above must respond to certain questions, however. Although Balhae claims to have succeeded Goguryeo, it did not come into being until thirty years after the latter’s fall. In addition, in those days the Three Kingdoms did not consider themselves to be nations with the same roots, and hence it is difficult to judge the validity of the unification based on the aid of foreign forces or other elements. Therefore, until some inventive alternative appears, it seems harmless to apply the name Unified Silla, considering that it was a clearly new and unique nation in terms of the scale of its territory and population and the level of its culture. At the time, Silla emphasized the unification aspect as well, using terms such as iltong samhan (lit. one unification, three Han states) or iltong samguk (lit. one unification, three kingdoms). Based on this perception, they divided the nation into nine provinces. While the conception that Silla unified the Three Kingdoms might have detractors, there is no doubting that this was a period of tumultuous change. With the fall of the two nations that had engaged Silla in long-standing confrontations and rivalry, circumstances inside and outside Silla were transformed. Externally, a new East Asian order was forming with the Tang dynasty as its axis. At the time, Tang China would have been less of an ally than a competitor looking to dominate Silla as well. Although Silla succeeded in driving them from the peninsula, people lived under a sense of threat since no one knew when Tang might resume its aggression. Furthermore, refugees from Baekje who had crossed to Japan were constantly seeking an opportune moment to attack Silla and restore their nation. To assuage this crisis, Silla engaged in active diplomacy with Japan. While pursuing peaceful coexistence with other nations, Silla sought to ensure a stable internal foundation. For Silla, unification presented a great opportunity to advance. Its dramatic increase in both area and population necessitated an equivalent change to its governing system. Embracing the people of Goguryeo and Baekje, Silla also assimilated the advanced cultural elements that they brought. Upon this foundation, Silla introduced further elements from Tang China, which enabled it to grow and develop further as a nation. Consequently, the eighth century is considered Silla’s golden age. Even Tang China, the world’s most advanced nation at the time, called Silla "the land of the noble man [junxi]," acknowledging the cultural heights it had attained. Although Silla had failed to absorb the full extent of Goguryeo territory, unification served as a launchpad for new development. However, as soon as Silla reached its peak, it started on a path of decline. Though the country’s internal and external environment and circumstances had changed, it clung to its former system and failed to make needed adaptations. It was particularly committed to sustaining the Bone Rank System, which had long provided the frame for the nation's politics and society. Despite some political accommodations, the Bone Rank System ensured the reproduction of a privileged class. This concentration of politica…