Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology Vol.7
2013. 01.
2577-9842
2951-4983
INTRODUCE
- BUDDHIST ART AND CULTURE IN KOREA
- Written by leading Korean archaeologists and art historians, who serve as university professors, museum curators, and researchers at archaeological centers, the articles in this issue of the Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology span a broad chronological range from the Late Bronze Age and into the nineteenth century. They also examine works in a variety of media, from Bronze Age daggers and Goguryeo tombs to Buddhist sculptures and paintings from the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties to the ritualistic installation of various objects inside Buddhist images (both sculptures and paintings) to royal patronage of Buddhist temples in the late Joseon era. A transformation tableau of Yuanjue jing, or the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment—a painting in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston that was long believed to be Chinese but that has now been identified as a Korean painting from the late Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392)—is the subject of “Form and References of the Goryeo Painting of the Rocana Assembly in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston”. To explain the iconography and background of the Boston scroll, Chang Qing focuses on the Rocana triad, or images of the Rocana assembly, and traces the lineage of the Goryeo painting back to China. Scholars have previously identified a number of similar Rocana triad images in Sichuan, Hangzhou, and Japan, and have asserted that icons of this type derive from Chinese images produced for the Huayan, or Avatamsaka, Sect of Buddhism in the Five Dynasties (907-960) and Song (960-1279) periods. Since most of the related images are found in Sichuan, some scholars have speculated that Sichuan might be the likely origin of the iconography. However, the earliest extant similar image is located in Hangzhou, which has traditionally enjoyed a much higher status than the Southwest of China, in terms of both religion and culture. As Hangzhou was then the nation’s primary political and Buddhist center, the images found in Hangzhou should be the key to understanding the iconography and background of the Boston Goryeo scroll. In this article, Chang analyzes the transmission of Huayan Buddhist art from China to Korea by focusing on the iconography of the Boston Goryeo scroll and the Rocana assembly found in niche 5 of Feilaifeng in Hangzhou. He further discusses how artists inherited the tradition and created unique features for the Rocana assembly, as well as how Hangzhou played an important role in the transmission of Huayan Buddhist images. In “Hyeonwangdo from Seongbulsa Temple and the Tradition of Hyeonwangdo of the Joseon Dynasty”, Jeong Myounghee closely examines the Hyeonwangdo, or painting of King Yama, the fifth king of the ten kings of the underworld, which was painted for Seongbulsa Temple in 1798 and is now housed in the National Museum of Korea, Seoul. Her research provides details about the background, production, and function of Hyeonwangdo during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). Understanding of this particular painting was greatly enhanced in March 2005, when, during conservation treatment, several objects and a document entitled Hyeonwangtaeng wonmun were found inside the scroll’s upper shaft. Through a document called Hyeonwangcheong, which is a liturgy of the formal procedures for performing the ritual for Hyeonwang, and through a ritual called “Hyeonwangjae” (final ritual for Hyeonwang), Jeong investigates how the practices of worshipping, making offerings, and praying to Hyeonwang became formalized and institutionalized. She also explores how Hyeonwangdo developed separately from Siwangdo, or paintings of the ten kings of the underworld through the process of formalization. Until now Hyeonwangdo have been neglected by scholars of Buddhist art, who typically have considered them to be merely a subgenre of paintings depicting the underworld. Notably, however, while other paintings of the underworld were typically enshrined in the Judgment Hall, Hyeonwangdo were often enshrined in the temple’s main hall. In focusing on Hyeongwangdo, Jeong also examines how Buddhist paintings with the same theme acquired differing religious meanings, depending on where they were enshrined. In “Mid-Goryeo Buddhist Sculpture and the Influence of Song-Dynasty China”, Jeong Eunwoo examines characteristics of Korean Buddhist sculptures from the mid-Goryeo period that reflect the influence of China’s Song Dynasty (960-1279), including bodhisattvas depicted in the posture of royal ease, the use of gamtang—a pliable substance presumably comprised of wax, pine resin, and other ingredients—to form hair and jewels, the insertion of rock crystal for the eyes, and use of composite crowns made from multiple thin pieces of metal. Through maritime routes, the Avalokiteshvara faith associated with Mt. Putuo in China was introduced to Goryeo (918-1392), leading to the widespread production of sculptures of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva. The world-renowned beauty and refinement of Goryeo Buddhist sculpture is directly related to the employment of such features and techniques from Song-Dynasty China. The application of gamtang on wooden or dry-lacquer surfaces allowed for a delicate, elaborate rendering of hair and jewels, for example, and the crowns, which were assembled from thin sheets of copper, attest to precision in metalworking. Glass, rock crystal, and other dazzling jewels were carefully inserted to represent the eyes. Used together, these techniques imparted the excellence for which Goryeo Buddhist sculpture is well known. All of these stylistic and technical elements likely were introduced to Goryeo from Song China via maritime routes. Of course, these new methods were refined by Goryeo artisans and combined with existing techniques to create a new aesthetic that was unique to Goryeo. Bokjang—the ritualistic installation of various objects inside a Buddhist image—is the topic of “History of the Bokjang Tradition in Korea” by Lee Seonyong. Buddhist images, whether sculptures or paintings, only become objects of faith and worship through two rituals: jeoman, wherein the pupils of the Buddha’s eyes are painted in the final stages of creating a Buddhist image, and bokjang, the ritualistic installation of various objects inside a Buddhist sculpture or painting. Virtually every country to which Buddhism has spread has a tradition similar to the Korean bokjang tradition. The exact origins of the bokjang ritual are not known, but the oldest examples known of its practice are the sixth-century Buddhas of Bamiyan, in Afghanistan (which were destroyed by the Taliban in 2001). In Korea, the earliest known example of bokjang is thought to be an agalmatolite jar dated by inscription to 766, which was discovered inside the pedestal of a stone statue of Vairocana Buddha. The first known use of the term bokjang dates to 1241 and comes from volume 25 of Dongguk Isanggukjip by Yi Gyubo (1168-1241). Based on images with dated inscriptions and on textual references, the practice of bokjang is believed to have been firmly established as a Buddhist ritual during the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392). In this paper, Lee examines the evolution of the Korean bokjang tradition by comparing five existing versions of the Josanggyeong Sutra, with specific reference to the main elements of bokjang from the Goryeo and Joseon (1392-1910) dynasties. Those records are compared to surviving examples of bokjangmul—the objects installed in an image—to illustrate how the procedures and contents of the ritual changed over time. Although the practice of bokjang seems initially to have begun in Korea as a way to enshrine Buddha’s relics and sutras, with the publication of the Josanggyeong Sutra, the tradition gradually developed into a practice unique to Korea, a practice that incorporated the concepts of the five directions. Despite numerous changes that took place within the bokjang tradition from Goryeo to Joseon, the core elements were always related, demonstrating that the bokjang practices of the two dynasties were interconnected. In “Production Specialization of Liaoning- and Korean-type Bronze Daggers during the Korean Bronze Age”, Cho Daeyoun and Lee Donghee examine and compare the degree of specialization in the production of Liaoning-type and Korean-type bronze daggers in Korea’s Late Bronze Age. Their study demonstrates that relative standardization was achieved in the production of Korean-type bronze daggers in the Late Bronze Age, and that the production system became more specialized around this time. This development can be attributed to the increase in the number, diversity, and technological standard of bronze objects produced in southern Korea at that time. They present clear evidence that the demand for and production of bronze items increased significantly in the Late Bronze Age, and they argue that it thus is reasonable to assume that the production system of bronze items, including daggers, became more specialized, such specialization naturally leading to product standardization. This specialization in the production of bronze items would also have allowed for more diversity in the types of products being manufactured. That different-sized Korean-type bronze daggers were made through separate processes of production indicates that size was an important feature in the production of bronze daggers, which in turn suggests that different-sized daggers served different functions. In particular, the high degree of morphological standardization shown for large Korean-type bronze daggers might be attributed to their use as actual weapons. It can also be noted that the diversification of bronze items that took place in the Late Bronze Age led to the production of new types of bronze items, such as bronze mirrors with coarse and fine design, and ritual implements in the form of pole-top bells and eight-branched bells. Choi Jongtaik in “Archaeological Eviden…
COPYRIGHT & LICENSE
- Robert D. Mowry(Alan J. Dworsky Curator of Chinese Art Emeritus Harvard Art Museums and Senior Lecturer on Chinese and Korean Art Department of the History of Art and Architecture Harvard University)
As the senior editor of the Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology, articles from leading Korean archaeologists and art historians span from the Late Bronze Age to the 19th century. Highlights include studies on Korean Buddhist art and its Chinese influences, the evolution of the bokjang tradition, specialization in Korean Bronze Age daggers, Goguryeo's Southern expansion, and 19th-century royal patronage of Buddhist temples. These articles exemplify scholarly excellence, combining research and quality translations for an insightful publication.
- Chang Qing(Adjunct Professor, University of Missouri-St. Louis)
The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, houses a Buddhist scroll painting from the late Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392), depicting the court of Vairocana Buddha, previously misidentified as Chinese. The scroll, now recognized as Korean, features Vairocana amidst bodhisattvas Manjusri and Samantabhadra, diverging iconographically from the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment by depicting Vairocana as the main Buddha instead of Sakyamuni. The artwork is a product of artistic traditions from the Huayan Sect of Buddhism with Chinese roots, especially linked to Hangzhou. The work reflects a blend of styles, showing transmission of Huayan Buddhist art to Korea. Drawing similarities with Sichuan and Hangzhou images, the scroll emphasizes religious narratives, depicting various figures from Buddhist texts with symbolic details. The piece highlights ritual practices involving Rocana, influenced by texts from Chinese monks and traditions, suggesting a connection between historical art styles in China and their evolution in Korea and Japan.
- Jeong Myounghee(Associate Curator, Gwangju National Museum)
The main halls of Buddhist temples from the Joseon Dynasty are adorned with paintings on three walls, each depicting different aspects of Buddhist worship. The central theme is encompassed by the main painting which typically depicts the world of Buddha. These temple paintings include a subgenre focusing on the figure of Hyeonwang, the fifth King of the Underworld. Hyeonwangdo, distinguished from Siwangdo that generally depict all Ten Kings of the Underworld, focus only on Hyeonwang. A case study of a Hyeonwangdo from Seongbulsa Temple reveals that this painting contained a document and objects in carved cavities, a unique practice for Buddhist paintings indicative of the Hyeonwang ritual. This ritual, formalized during the late Joseon period, emphasized Hyeonwang's ability to expedite souls into rebirth. Over time, the distinctiveness of Hyeonwangdo weakened as they combined aspects of Siwangdo and depiction of hell.
- Jeong Eunwoo(Professor, Dong-A University)
During the mid-Goryeo Dynasty (1046-1270), notable Buddhist sculptures emerged, influenced by Chinese Song art. Goryeo sculptures displayed bodhisattvas in "royal ease" posture, influenced by Chinese regions, especially southern China and Song-era motifs. Styles like relaxed postures, decorative elements, and new materials such as gamtang and rock-crystal eyes were evident. These influences arrived through maritime routes and were integrated into the unique Goryeo aesthetic, showcasing artistic exchange between China and Korea.
- Lee Seonyong(Curator, Sudeoksa Temple Museum)
Buddhist images in Korea become objects of faith through rituals: jeoman, painting the pupils of the Buddha's eyes, and bokjang, placing items inside statues. Bokjang's origins are unclear, but it dates back to the sixth-century Bamiyan Buddhas. Korean bokjang includes objects like votive inscriptions and textiles, wrapped in specific ways and placed in containers like huryeongtong. Changes from the Goryeo to Joseon Dynasty saw shifts in objects used, reflecting evolving Buddhist practices. Despite changes, the core remains the huryeongtong, tied to the Josanggyeong Sutra.
- Cho Daeyoun(Professor, Chonbuk National University),
- Lee Donghee(Researcher, Korea National University of Cultural Heritage)
During the Korean Peninsula's Bronze Age (1500-400 BCE), a shift from household production to specialized craft occurred with artifacts like red burnished pottery, stone daggers, and jade ornaments. This was paralleled by bronze-use emergence, notably Liaoning- and Korean-type bronze daggers. Despite scarce archaeological data, these artifacts reflect increased specialization and standardization in production, analyzed through methodologies like the standardization hypothesis. This study highlights the evolution of production techniques, with Korean-type daggers showing greater standardization compared to earlier Liaoning-type daggers, suggesting a more specialized and diversified production in the Late Bronze Age.
- Choi Jongtaik(Professor, Korea University)
Goguryeo, founded in 37 BCE, was a significant power in East Asia by the 4th century CE. Establishing its capitals in present-day China, it moved to Pyeongyang Fortress in 427 CE to expand southwards, peaking in power in 475 CE. Archaeological discoveries since the 1980s, like tombs and fortifications in various Korean regions, highlighted Goguryeo's southern expansion. Key fortifications were found in the Han, Imjin, and Geum River regions, revealing a strategic spread. Mount Acha and surrounding areas have been focal points of study, providing insight into Goguryeo’s military presence and governance, particularly through artifacts indicating instances of direct control over annexed territories. Tomb findings showed a structured population presence reinforcing Goguryeo's control during the 5th and 6th centuries.
- Lee Yongyun(Head of the Department of Buddhist Art, Research Institute of Buddhist Cultural Heritage)
Hwagyesa Temple, located on Mt. Samgak in Seoul, is renowned for its historical significance tied to royal patronage, particularly by women of the Joseon court in the late 19th century. Established in the Goryeo Dynasty and elevated in status during the Joseon Dynasty, the temple underwent major renovations under royal sponsorship. The Ksitigarbha Triad painting, now in the National Museum of Korea, exemplifies this patronage, being commissioned by Queen Dowager Hong through Sanggung Kim Cheonjinhwa. Key figures like monk-painter Hwasan Jaegeun were instrumental in the temple's artistic and spiritual development.