Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology Vol.10
2016. 01.
2577-9842
2951-4983
INTRODUCE
- ANCIENT KOREAN BUDDHIST SCULPIURE OF UNIFIED SILLA
- The special feature of Volume 10 focuses on Buddhist art, especially the Buddhist sculpture of the Unified Silla dynasty. Ever since art history was introduced to Korea as a modern discipline in the early twentieth century, Buddhist art has been one of the major subjects in the historiography of Korean art. Buddhist art was an important subject of study for Ko Yuseop (高裕燮, 1905–1944), who is widely accepted as the first art historian in Korean history. Majoring in art history and aesthetics at Keijō Imperial University, Ko was exposed to the theoretical work of European art historians, including Alois Riegl (1858–1905) and Heinrich Wölfflin (1864–1945). After graduating, Ko was appointed director of Gaeseong City Museum in 1933, and began conducting extensive field research and publishing copious academic articles on Korean art. Although he studied painting and Buddhist sculpture as well, the main focus of his scholarship was the stone pagodas that dotted the Korean landscape. These pagodas, which were built to enshrine Buddhist relics, are the most representative examples of Buddhist architecture. Unlike China and Japan where timber and bricks were the most common building materials for pagodas, the pagodas in Korea have a long history of being built of stone. After the premature death of Ko, who established the foundations of Korean Buddhist art history as a modern discipline, his disciples Hwang Sooyoung (黃壽永, 1918–2011) and Chin Hongsup (秦弘燮, 1918–2010) continued to develop the field. In subsequent generations, a more diverse group of art historians trained in Korea, America, Europe, and Japan published on various topics in Buddhist painting, sculpture, and architecture, expanding the scope of the art historical methodologies applied. In the West, interest in Buddhism was sparked as early as the nineteenth century and began to influence intellectuals such as the German philosophers Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). As European archaeologists and sinologists, including Alexander Cunningham (1814–1893), Paul Pelliot (1878–1945), and Aurel Stein (1862–1943), started to excavate ancient Indian Buddhist monuments and collect Buddhist artwork and manuscripts in Central Asia and China, Buddhist art also began drawing the attention of European collectors and museum curators. Among the first to introduce Japanese Buddhist art to America was the art historian Ernest Fenollosa (1853–1908), but Buddhist art is now an important subject in many art history departments in the West. The amount of academic publications on Korean Buddhist art in English, however, remains small compared to those on Indian, Chinese, and Japanese Buddhist art. My colleagues in the West have expressed a dire need for more English publications on Korean Buddhist art to use in their teaching. The publication of Volume 10 of Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology, I believe, will serve as a valuable resource for scholars and students of Asian art who want to teach and learn more on the subject. This volume includes three featured articles on Buddhist sculpture of the Silla dynasty (新羅, 57 BCE–935), two articles on archaeology, an article on Buddhist craft from the Goryeo dynasty (高麗, 918–1392), and an article on a landscape painting from the Joseon dynasty (朝鮮, 1392–1910) currently in the National Museum of Korea’s collection. The first featured articles in this volume, “Vairocana, Image of Dharmakāya in the Late Silla Dynasty” by Kang Heejung, offers answers to important questions about the socio-religious context and doctrinal meaning of the Vairocana sculptures produced in Silla. Most of the surviving Vairocana sculptures come from the late Silla period. Based on inscriptional and scriptural evidence, Kang’s article suggests that these Vairocana sculptures were produced as part of the Silla kings’ efforts to strengthen their power as their authority weakened in the late Silla period. Kang’s article also solves the question as to why these Vairocana sculptures form the wisdom-fist mudrā, a hand gesture from Esoteric Buddhism, although they represent the principal Buddha of the Hwaeom (華嚴, Ch. Huayan) school in the Silla period. The article further examines how the production of the Vairocana sculptures in late Silla reflects the fusion of Seon (禪, Ch. Chan) Buddhism with Hwaeom in the context of Silla. So Hyunsook’s paper, “The Relationship between Buddhist Sculpture of the Unified Silla Period and Tang Dynasty Painting: A Study of the Buddha and Bodhisattva Sculptures from Gamsansa Temple,” reveals the interregional cultural exchange from Perisa to Korea as well as the cross-media exchange between painting and sculpture. Through careful examination of the stylistic distinctiveness of two sculptures in Gamsansa temple—especially the butterfly-shaped knots above the shoulders and the densely overlapping U-shaped creases on the drapery—the paper demonstrates that these famous Silla sculptures from the year 719 were based on painted models from Tang China. As So points out, such details commonly appeared in contemporaneous murals in Dunhuang which reflected influence from Khotan, while Chinese sculptures from that era lacked such details. The paper further infers the ways in which such painted models may have been brought to Silla from China by Kim Jiseong, the patron of the two Gamsansa sculptures, as well as the intimate relationship between painting and sculpture in China. Focusing on the sculpture in Seokguram Grotto, Huh Hyeonguk explores the sculptures of Brahmā and Indra in India and East Asian in his article, “Iconography of Brahmā and Indra in Seokguram Grotto: Its Origins and Formation.” Over the last two decades, Huh has conducted in-depth research on the images of these two important but surprisingly little-studied deities. Due to their iconographic precision, the eighth-century reliefs at Seokguram Grotto in Gyeongju, Korea are important works that can improve our understanding of Brahmā and Indra in the Buddhist tradition. The most significant contribution in his article is Huh’s ground-breaking illumination of the influence of the Hwaeom school of Buddhism on the inclusion of the Brahmā and Indra reliefs inside the round main chamber of Seokguram Grotto. Also remarkable is Huh’s finding that the iconographic details of these reliefs were based on the explanation of the Tuoluoni ji jing (陀羅尼集經, Compiled Dhāraṇi Sūtras). Since Huh’s article also examines the earlier and later images of Brahmā and Indra in India and China, his article will be useful not only for students of Korean art but also for scholars of Buddhist art in general. Ahn Sung-Mo, author of the first archaeological article in this journal and emeritus professor of Wonkwang University, has devoted his life to the development of palaeoethnobotany, which involves the study of the remains of plants cultivated or used by men at archaeological sites in Korea. His article, “A Study of Utilization Patterns of Nuts and Nut-yielding Trees from the Neolithic Times through the Three Kingdoms Period in Korea Based on Plant Remains,” analyzes pollen and macro plant remains from archaeological sites and traces changes in the usage of nuts and nut-yielding trees. According to Ahn’s findings, acorns were a key component of the diet during the Neolithic period and oak was a preferred building material; however, as grain cultivation technology developed in the Bronze Age, acorns lost their importance. Instead, chestnuts and chestnut trees became more prevalent, and people in the southern Korean Peninsula seem to have begun cultivating chestnut trees during this time. The other archaeological article in this issue, “The Chronology and Changing Nature of the Lime Mortar Burials of the Joseon Period” by Kim Hyunwoo, examines the Joseon dynasty’s tombs built using lime mortar, which were related to Neo-Confucianism. Until now, these tombs have not been systematically studied because archaeologists have focused more on the prehistoric and ancient periods. Kim’s study, however, shows these tombs to be a significant part of the material culture, the study of which can improve our understanding of the Joseon dynasty. After examining how the Neo-Confucian funerary rituals supported by the Joseon court promoted lime mortar burials, Kim’s paper offers a chronological analysis of these tombs. This study will serve as a sound basis for future study of the Joseon dynasty’s lime mortar burials, encouraging interdisciplinary studies that bridge archaeology, history, and cultural studies. “Tradition and Originality in Buddhist Incense Burners of the Goryeo Dynasty” by Lee Yongjin examines the process by which the unique styles and methods of decorating the Goryeo dynasty’s Buddhist incense burners gradually developed, while investigating their relationship with the previous craft tradition from the Silla dynasty. Lee suggests that Goryeo incense burners of a particular design originated from similar incense burners in the Silla dynasty. Lee also examines traces of the Silla tradition in the hyangwan, the representative type of Goryeo incense burner that takes the shape of a large pedestal bowl. On the other hand, the hanging style of incense burner known as hyeonno and the silver inlay decorations, as Lee points out, are unique to the Goryeo style. Also noteworthy is Lee’s in-depth exploration of the Siddhaṃ characters inlaid in the Goryeo incense burners and their origin. The last piece in this journal, “Bihaedang’s Poetry Scroll of the Eight Views of the Xiao and Xiang Rivers and Its Relationship to Eight Views of the Xiao and Xiang Rivers from the Former Yūgensai Collection in Japan” by Park Haehoon offers an in-depth study of an album from the National Museum of Korea’s collection. This album, entitled Bihaedang’s Poetry Scroll of the Eight Views of the Xiao and Xiang R…
COPYRIGHT & LICENSE
- Kim Youn-mi(Assistant Professor of Yale University)
The "Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology," published annually by the National Museum of Korea since 2007, translates important Korean studies for the English-speaking audience. Volume 10 highlights Buddhist art, focusing on the Unified Silla dynasty's sculpture. It includes articles on Vairocana sculptures' socio-religious significance, Silla sculptures' connections with Tang dynasty paintings, and Brahmā and Indra iconography in Seokguram Grotto. Additionally, it analyzes Korean archaeological findings and cultural exchanges. The journal promotes understanding of Korean Buddhist art and serves as a resource for Western scholars. Editor Kim Youn-mi of Yale University completed the edition under time pressure due to the illness of the previous editor, Dr. Robert D. Mowry.
- Kang Heejung(Sogang University)
Sculptures of Vairocana, prominent in Korea during the late Silla period, embody the truth realized by all Buddhas and manifest as the Dharma body, or truth body. Unlike historical Buddhas, Vairocana represents universal truth through light, akin to the sun's illumination, guiding sentient beings. The doctrine of the trikaya conceptualizes the Buddha's three bodies, positioning Vairocana as the Dharma body central to Buddhist cosmology. In Silla, Vairocana sculptures, characterized by the wisdom-fist mudra, reflect Esoteric influences and Hwaeom philosophy, promoting the monarch's absolute authority. Despite their varied origins, these images mirror the mingling of Buddhist traditions, underscoring Vairocana's role as a symbol of enlightenment and unity across darkness and ignorance, asserting the throne's authority in a time of sociopolitical change.
- So Hyunsook(Visiting Professor, Wonkwang University)
Kim Jiseong, a noble of the sixth rank from the late 7th to early 8th century Silla, sponsored the creation of Gamsansa Temple and its Buddhist sculptures in 719 to honor his late parents. The sculptures reflect Central Asian influences prevalent in Tang China, demonstrated in their clothing's U-shaped drapery and ornate knots. The Gamsansa Temple sculptures highlight the stylistic blend from Kim's diplomatic exposure to Tang and possibly utilized painted models from the Yuchi school, embodying a multicultural artistry.
- Huh Hyeonguk(Associate Curator, Gyeongju National Museum)
Brahm and Indra, known as Beomcheon and Jeseokcheon in Korean, are key figures in Buddhist texts, aiding Buddha and protecting his teachings. Originating from Indian religion, they became Buddhist deities with diverse symbolic meanings. While earlier images of them appear in Gandhara and India, notable surviving ones from the 8th century are found in Korea’s Seokguram Grotto and Japan. In Seokguram, their iconography is distinct, influenced by early Esoteric Buddhist texts, notably merging with Hwaeom concepts prevalent during the Unified Silla period. These depictions continued to influence Korean Buddhist art, distinguishing it from Chinese and Japanese traditions.
- Ahn Sung-Mo(Emeritus Professor, Wonkwang University)
Since the 1990s, increased development in South Korea has led to more archaeological discoveries of plant remains like seeds and wood, but analysis is often confined to site reports, resulting in valuable data being overlooked. This paper highlights the evolution of nut use from the Neolithic to the Three Kingdoms period in Korea. Initially, acorns were central to the Neolithic diet, with oak wood largely used. The importance of acorns declined with farming, while chestnut use rose from the first century BCE. Evidence suggests chestnuts were cultivated in the south by the third century CE, supported by historical mentions of large chestnuts in ancient texts. During this time, chestnuts began replacing acorns as a key food source in some regions, and wood-species analysis shows chestnut wood became more common, particularly in the Mahan and Baekje areas. This change aligns with climatic shifts and societal needs. While Manchurian walnuts were noted in certain areas, other nuts like pine nuts and hazelnuts were rare in findings.
- Kim Hyunwoo(PhD candidate, Seoul National University)
Lime mortar burials, distinct to the Joseon period, reflect the influence of Neo-Confucianism on burial practices. However, their study has been limited due to the focus of Korean archaeology on prehistoric contexts. These burials often preserve mummies and garments due to the unique lime mortar sealing. Initially adopted by the royal family, their evolution paralleled societal shifts. Researchers aim to establish a chronological framework for these burials, exploring changes in construction and features over time, highlighting their role in understanding Joseon society. Despite challenges, such as limited excavation and reliance on dendrochronology, these studies shed light on the simplification and adaptation of lime mortar burials to changing economic and cultural contexts.
- Lee Yongjin(Associate Curator, National Museum of Korea)
The incense burners of Korea's Goryeo dynasty (918-1392) serve as an important connector between the burners of the Unified Silla and Joseon periods. They reflect traits from both eras while introducing innovations like the hanging burners, or hyeonno, and the use of silver inlay for decoration. Silla influences appear in form succession, while Goryeo burners demonstrate originality in their designs and use in Buddhist ceremonies. The burners’ details, including Sanskrit inscriptions, reflect a unique Korean adaptation of Buddhist art forms.
- Park Haehoon(Chief Curator, Naju National Museum)
The Eight Views of the Xiao and Xiang Rivers began as a painting theme by Song Di in the Northern Song dynasty and became highly influential in East Asian art, especially in Korea during the Joseon period. A key work is Bihaedang's Poetry Scroll, initiated by Prince Anpyeong in 1442, which originally featured poems and paintings by cultural figures. Although the paintings are lost, the scroll’s poems are vital to understanding the theme's early Joseon significance. Notable is the Ygensai collection's Eight Views, believed to follow Emperor Ningzong's poetic sequence. These works and their stylistic evolution significantly impacted Korean landscape painting on this theme.