Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology Vol.9
2015. 01.
2577-9842
2951-4983
INTRODUCE
- ART AND CULTURE OF GOGURYEO
- In “Development of Goguryeo Tomb Murals,” Ahn Hwi-Joon discusses the earliest paintings found in Korea, the tomb murals of the ancient Goguryeo Kingdom. Those murals provide a vivid pictorial account of Goguryeo history and culture, just as they also offer insight into the distinct characteristics of early Korean painting and provide a window into Goguryeo society, shedding light on shifts in religious belief and on cultural exchanges with other countries. Murals first appeared in Goguryeo tombs around the fourth century; they continued to be produced until the collapse of the dynasty in 668. Such mural tombs were concentrated in Pyeongyang (平壤) and in Tonggu (通溝, Ch. Tonggou), present-day Ji’an (集安), Jilin province in China. The murals exhibit distinct regional characteristics, just as they show changes in theme and style over time; they can be classified into early (fourth to fifth century), middle (fifth to sixth century), and late (sixth to seventh century) periods accordingly. The awkward, even crude, style of the early phase gradually became more refined and polished in later years, embodying the power and dynamism characteristic of Goguryeo art. Early murals typically featured genre scenes and portraits of the tomb occupant and his wife as well as hunting and procession scenes. Narrative scenes of daily life depicting episodes in the life of the deceased couple replaced the portraits as the primary theme in the middle period, and hunting and procession scenes disappeared. The late Goguryeo period saw genre paintings abandoned in favor of representations of the Four Directional Deities, reflecting the growing influence of Taoism. The figures depicted in the later murals exhibit a higher level of artistic excellence than those of earlier periods. Landscapes began to appear in tomb murals no later than the early fifth century, developing a more sophisticated style during the middle and late periods and evolving an elevated sense of naturalism. The first Goguryeo fortress excavated in South Korea was Guui-dong Fort, which was investigated in 1977. At the time, South Korean archaeologists could not envision the presence of Goguryeo sites in South Korea, so the excavation team tentatively concluded that the structural remains were associated with a Baekje tomb. However, the Guui-dong site came to be reinterpreted as the remains of a Goguryeo fortress after the discovery of a distinctive Goguryeo-style jar during the 1988 excavation of the Mongchon Earthen Fortress (夢村土城) in Seoul. Subsequent field surveys beginning in the early 1990s resulted in the further discovery of the remains of Goguryeo fortresses in the Seoul region and northern areas of Gyeonggi Province; to date, approximately ten such fortress sites have been fully excavated. In “The Structure and Characteristics of Goguryeo Fortresses in South Korea,” Yang Sieun conducts a comprehensive examination of Goguryeo fortress sites excavated in South Korea and considers the nature of those fortresses, relying on archaeological evidence. The earliest phase of Goguryeo fortress construction in South Korea can now be dated to the fifth century. The Goguryeo fortresses of South Korea were characteristically set on the north banks of rivers in order to defend against attacks by Baekje or Silla forces that would have approached from the south or southeast. Small-sized mountain forts, the Goguryeo fortresses of South Korea stand in contrast to the middle- to large-scale fortresses in areas of ancient Goguryeo territory that now lie in China and North Korea. Some of those fortresses—Horogoru Fortress, for example—may have functioned as local administrative centers as well as forts for defense. Set on the tops of mountain ridges, Goguryeo fortresses commanded an ideal view of the routes that passed through the flatlands; their ideal topographical conditions thus permitted them to block north-south transportation routes, giving them control of trade and the movement of people. In “Origins of Early Goguryeo Stone-piled Tombs and the Formation of a Proto-Goguryeo Society,” Yeo Hokyu considers the formation of a Proto-Goguryeo society by examining the origins of Goguryeo stone-piled tombs. Professor Yeo analyzes the relationship between the stone-piled tombs and the indigenous communities of the region in order to determine whether the core group of Proto-Goguryeo was composed of migrants or by a consolidation of communities that traditionally resided in the region. Bronze culture predominated in the eastern regions of the Tianshan Mountain Range until the early to mid-third century BCE. The full-scale adoption of iron culture in that region took place toward the end of the third century BCE, a period that also witnessed the migration of displaced communities due to the many battles during China’s Warring States period (戰國時代, 475 – 221 BCE). Early Goguryeo stone-piled tombs began to appear about this time, with limited distribution in the middle and upper reaches of the Amnok River (鴨綠江)—also called the Yalu River, using the Chinese pronunciation of the same characters—which was the birthplace of the Goguryeo state. The roots of Goguryeo society can be found in the population group that began to construct stone-piled tombs in association with the adoption of iron culture; this group is believed to have split from the “Maek” (貊) people that resided in the eastern region of the Tianshan Mountain Range. The Proto-Goguryeo communities emerged out of the “Yemaek” (濊貊) people through many stages of fissuring, and came to be called “Guryeo” (句麗). In this sense, they can be referred to as the “Guryeo ethnic group” (句麗種族)—separate from the neighboring “Yemaek” communities—and the society that developed from this group can be regarded as the Proto-Goguryeo society that laid the foundation for the Goguryeo state. The discovery in the 1960s of the Takamatsuzuka Tomb (高松塚古墳) in the Japanese village of Asuka, Nara Prefecture, confirmed for the first time the existence in Japan of mural tombs—a type of tomb different in lineage from decorated tombs—sparking debate in Japan and abroad about the sociopolitical background and the sociocultural conditions that might have led to the construction of a continental-style mural tomb in Nara. Meanwhile, another mural tomb was discovered in the region in 1983: the Kitora Tomb (キトラ古墳). The discovery of these tombs also caused much excitement in Korea, as they suggested a connection with the culture of Korea’s Three Kingdoms period, particularly that of the Goguryeo Kingdom. In “The Murals of Takamatsuzuka and Kitora Tombs in Japan and Their Relationship to Goguryeo Culture,” Jeon Hotae offers a detailed look at the Takamatsuzuka and Kitora tombs and examines historical and cultural sources that shed light on the possible link between Goguryeo tomb murals and the two Japanese mural tombs. In themes, composition, and technique, the murals in the Takamatsuzuka and Kitora tombs reflect the influence of Tang culture on the Goguryeo tradition, which, in turn influenced the Japanese tradition; even so, the murals also introduce features of mural composition unseen in Goguryeo or Tang tomb murals, as they were produced at a time when Japan was beginning to establish a cultural identity of its own. Both tomb structure and mural styles suggest the strong possibility that the people who constructed the two tombs and painted the murals were descendants of Goguryeo immigrants. It is also probable that the interred were government officials of Goguryeo descent. From many points of view, the Takamatsuzuka and Kitora tombs can be classified as Goguryeo-Japanese-style mural tombs; they provide insight into how the descendants of Goguryeo immigrants understood and responded to the tasks of the day. In “The Material Culture of the Royal City Identified in the Peripheral Regions of Baekje,” Kwon Ohyoung explores relationships between the Baekje Kingdom’s central authority and its peripheral regions. As the ancient Baekje Kingdom grew and relationships were established between the center and the periphery, individuals known as wanggyeongin (王京人) were dispatched from the capital to local regions. Living mainly in mountain fortresses, whose construction, maintenance, and management they oversaw, the wanggyeongin formed the core of the Baekje regional administration. From the perspective of the Baekje rulers, it must have been of key importance to have the local elite submit to the system of direct control by the Baekje center. Focusing on the Ungjin (熊津時代, 475 – 538) and Sabi (泗沘時代, 538 – 660) periods, when the Baekje capital was based in Gongju (公州) and Buyeo (扶餘), respectively, this article identifies the legacy of the wanggyeongin in the Honam (湖南) region (i.e., today’s Jeolla Province region in the southwest) in order to examine the process and nature of the assimilation of the region into Baekje society. The article goes on to examine the material culture of the wanggyeongin through study of the artifacts excavated in the region. In fact, the sudden appearance of artifacts associated with aristocratic high culture in peripheral areas or in frontline defense areas can be explained only by assuming that the wanggyeongin, who had first-hand experience of the aristocratic culture of the Baekje center, had settled in these regions. In “A Sixteenth-century Arhat Painting Commissioned by Queen Munjeong: Deoksewi, 153rd of the 500 Arhats, in the Collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art,” Shin Kwanghee focuses on a sixteenth-century painting now in the collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art that represents Deoksewi, the 153rd of the 500 Buddhist arhats. A hanging scroll executed in ink and colors on silk, the painting is one from the set of 200 arhat paintings produced for Hyangnimsa Temple in 1562; Queen Munjeong (文定王后, 1502 – 1565), a devout Buddhist, commissioned …
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- Robert D. Mowry(Alan J. Dworsky Curator of Chinese Art Emeritus Harvard Art Museums)
The Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology features seven articles focusing mainly on Korea's Three Kingdoms period, especially the Goguryeo and Baekje kingdoms, and Buddhist rituals and paintings from the Joseon Dynasty. Key themes include Goguryeo tombs, murals, fortresses, and their influence on Japanese art, while also examining Baekje's central-peripheral relationships. Additionally, depicted are a 16th-century Buddhist arhat painting, the Suryukjae ritual, and the cultural importance of these artworks.
- Ahn Hwi-Joon(Chairman, Overseas Korean Cultural Heritage Foundation)
The tomb murals of Goguryeo (37 BCE–668 CE) are vital to Korean art history, offering insights into early Korean painting and Goguryeo culture. They reveal the origins of Korean painting, Goguryeo’s religious views, and cultural exchanges. Murals appeared from the 4th century, reflecting social shifts and showcasing fine arts, techniques, and evolving themes, like the Four Directional Deities and Taoist influences. Changes in tomb architecture and mural styles marked the transition from complex to simpler representations, highlighting Goguryeo's aesthetic and cultural dynamics.
- Yang Sieun(Professor, Chungbuk National University)
The investigation of Goguryeo fortresses in South Korea started less than two decades ago, but significant progress has been made, exceeding the research done in North Korea and China. Initial excavations in 1977 at the Guui-dong Fort were wrongly attributed to the Baekje Dynasty until a Goguryeo-style jar was discovered. Subsequent discoveries and excavations since the 1990s in the Seoul region and Gyeonggi Province confirmed about 100 Goguryeo sites, with most being fortresses. Research on these sites explores their structure, distribution, chronology, and role, emphasizing the importance of thoroughly examining archaeological evidence over historical records. South Korea's Goguryeo fortresses, primarily located along rivers for defense, differ in scale from those in China and North Korea, usually featuring small-sized forts on mountain terrain. Artifacts suggest that these fortresses date back to the fifth and sixth centuries, with later constructions using worked stone walls. The study of these fortresses has provided insights into the historical defensive strategies and the evolution of fort construction in the Goguryeo period.
- Yeo Hokyu(Professor, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Goguryeo, founded by King Dongmyeongseongwang Jumong in 37 BCE, emerged in the Amnok River region, formerly inhabited by indigenous Na groups. Through alliances, Jumong integrated with these communities, forming Goguryeo. Stone-piled tombs characterized early Goguryeo burial customs and were distinct from Buyeo's traditional burials, suggesting cultural evolution influenced by local traditions. The origin of these tombs is debated among archaeologists, with links proposed to stone cairns and Liaodong Peninsula burials. The transition from bronze to iron culture, marked by Ming knife coins and political shifts, influenced Goguryeo's development. While some suggest migrant inflow sparked these changes, others argue for indigenous evolution. Ultimately, these shifts led to the rise of the Proto-Goguryeo society, foundational to Goguryeo's establishment.
- Jeon Hotae(Professor, Department of History and Culture, University of Ulsan)
The Kitora and Takamatsuzuka Tombs in Asuka, Nara Prefecture, unearthed in the 1960s and 1983, respectively, revealed significant continental influences, sparking academic debate over their sociocultural background. Scholars in Japan and Korea, the latter noting cultural ties to Korea's Goguryeo period, studied these tombs. Goguryeo and Japan had robust cultural exchanges from the late sixth century, particularly in Buddhist relations, leading to Goguryeo's cultural transmission to Japan. Art in the tombs reflects Goguryeo styles mixed with Tang influences. This fusion is seen in the Takamatsuzuka and Kitora murals, integrating Goguryeo and Tang elements while marking early Japanese cultural identity attempts. These tombs highlight Goguryeo-Japanese style murals, hinting that their builders and inhabitants were likely Goguryeo descendants actively shaping Japan’s budding unique style and culture.
- Kwon Ohyoung(Professor, Seoul National University)
The ancient Baekje Kingdom (18 BCE - 660 CE) displayed significant cultural, economic, and political disparities between its center and periphery. Royal individuals known as "wanggyeongin" were dispatched from the Baekje capital to peripheral regions to administer and integrate these areas. This dissemination of central culture is evident from artifacts like Baekje-style ceramics, pillar-wall buildings, and roof tiles found in regional sites. The Ungjin and Sabi periods saw active efforts to assimilate peripheral regions, especially the Honam area, into Baekje through architectural and cultural artefacts, reflecting the migration of wanggyeongin and the aristocratic culture. The construction of mountain fortresses in South Jeolla Province coincided with Baekje's strategic expansions and defenses against Gaya and Silla influences. The cultural integration fostered by Baekje's central powers highlights the kingdom's political strategies and the pivotal role of wanggyeongin in extending Baekje's influence. Notably, the presence of Baekje cultural elements in peripheral settlements like Yeosu, Suncheon, and Gwangyang is evident through finds of Baekje green-glazed pottery, inkstones, and chamber pots, but typical Baekje-style tombs are yet to be discovered in these territories.
- Shin Kwanghee(Lecturer, Dongguk University)
The Buddhist pantheon includes deities like Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and arhats. Arhats are enlightened disciples of Buddha Shakyamuni who delay nirvana to protect Buddhist law. Often depicted as human monks in natural settings, arhat iconography is uncodified. In Korea, arhat paintings peaked during the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties but are now scarce. A particular interest lies in the 16th-century LACMA Deoksewi painting, commissioned by Queen Munjeong, illustrating intricate court style and echoing Goryeo tradition. Munjeong's patronage reflects her devotion to Buddhism and arhat worship for ensuring the health and prosperity of the royal family amid challenges, thus demonstrating the interplay between spiritual and artistic traditions in Korea.
- Park Hyewon(Associate Curator, National Museum of Korea)
Suryukjae is a significant Korean Buddhist ritual rooted in guiding souls to Paradise, first proliferating during Korea's Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). This ritual symbolizes unity among opposites (living and dead, enlightened beings, and unenlightened ones), underscored by music, art, and dance. Initially embraced by the state, Suryukjae later gained popular appeal and ritual manuals proliferated from the 15th to 18th centuries. Despite varied practices, ritual motifs remained, such as Buddhist paintings depicting guardian deities. Events today like those at Jingwansa and Samhwasa Temples mirror traditional structures, including key rites like Siryeon (deity escort), Daeryeong (spirit greeting), and multiple offerings. Ritual manuals detail 17th and 18th-century temple layouts, guiding modern interpretations of altars for steps like Gwanyok (spirit bathing), Gwaebul transport (large painting setup), Yeongsan, and Orodan rites (invoking messengers and emperors from various realms). Paintings, like the Soul-guiding Bodhisattva depiction and large Gwabuls at the National Museum of Korea, provide insights into the artwork's role within these rituals and other adjacent Buddhist ceremonies. Today, the resurgence of Suryukjae offers compelling opportunities to study Joseon-era Buddhist art through these complex interdependencies.