The Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology

Introduction

The tomb murals of the ancient Korean kingdom of Goguryeo (高句麗, 37 BCE – 668) hold great significance in the history of Korean art as they constitute a valuable resource for the study of both early Korean painting and ancient Korean culture. First, they are the earliest murals found in Korea and thus shed light on the origins of the Korean painting tradition. Second, the murals’ stylistic originality and their depictions of architecture, dress, and ornamentation offer a rich, pictorial account of the varied aspects of Goguryeo culture and provide insight into the Goguryeo people’s religious beliefs and understanding of universe. Third, they bear testimony to Goguryeo’s cultural exchanges with neighboring countries and regions, demonstrating in particular how Goguryeo adopted, adapted, and assimilated cultural elements from the Western Regions (西域) and from China during the Han Dynasty (漢, 206 BCE – 220) and Six Dynasties period (六朝, 220 – 589), and then went on to develop them in a way that best met their needs, eventually transmitting cultural influence on to Japan and to the other kingdoms of Korea’s Three Kingdoms period (三國時代)—Baekje (百濟, 18 BCE – 660), Silla (新羅, 57 BCE – 935), and Gaya (加耶, 42 – 562).

Murals first appeared in Goguryeo tombs around the fourth century; they continued to be produced until the collapse of the dynasty in 668. Such mural tombs were concentrated in Tonggu (通溝, Ch. Tonggou), the second capital of Goguryeo (3 – 427) in present-day Ji’an (集安), Jilin province, China, and Pyeongyang (平壤), the kingdom’s last capital (427 – 668) (Fig. 1). The murals exhibit distinctive regional characteristics, just as they show changes in theme and style over time; they can be classified into early (fourth to fifth century), middle (fifth to sixth century), and late (sixth to seventh century) periods accordingly.

Fig. 1. Portrait of the deceased on the west wall of the west side-room, Anak Tomb No. 3

Fig. 2. Distribution of Goguryeo Mural Tombs in Tonggu and Pyeongyang

Overview of Goguryeo Tomb Murals

Goguryeo produced some of the most magnificent and diverse tomb murals found in East Asia. The murals are generally found in stone-chambered tombs—that is, tombs with a large earthen mound within which is a burial chamber with stone-faced walls. Among the tombs excavated thus far, more than 100 contain murals (Jeon Hotae 2004, 96-102). The mural artists typically employed the lime-plaster technique, in which a coating of lime-based plaster was applied to the chamber’s stone walls, after which the murals were painted with ink and pigments, the lime-plaster coating proving a smooth, white surface for the murals. The artists also used the stone-surface painting technique, in which the murals were painted directly onto the untreated surfaces of the walls’ large stone slabs. Murals were customarily painted on the tomb chamber’s ceiling and all of its walls. The main subjects of tomb murals from the early and middle Goguryeo periods were human figures, generally portraits of the deceased, and genre scenes, which often were narrative in nature and recorded episodes from the tomb occupant’s life. The Four Directional Deities (四神),1 or the mythical animals believed to guard the tomb, emerged as the main theme in the late Goguryeo period. The sun, moon and stars, Taoist immortals, mythical animals, auspicious birds, sacred herbs, and drifting clouds were depicted on the ceiling in order to represent the celestial world the soul of the deceased would enter. The daily-life scenes depicted on the walls and the celestial world portrayed on the ceiling combined to create a microcosm of the universe inside the tomb. Such representations appear to have stemmed from the belief that the deceased’s wealth and prosperity would extend into the next world (Yi Eunchang 1985, 417-491).

Goguryeo tomb murals show changes over time in relation to tomb structure, themes and styles of paintings, shifts in religious beliefs, and cultural exchanges with other countries and cultures. The tomb structure gradually became simpler over time, with the multi-chamber tombs prevalent in the early phase of development giving way to double-chamber tombs, which eventually were replaced by single-chamber tombs. Regardless of such changes, however, single-chamber tombs appear to have been constructed throughout the entire Goguryeo period, from early to late. Multi-chamber tombs usually comprised a burial chamber and an antechamber with side rooms to the left and right; as seen in Anak Tomb No. 3 (安岳3號墳), the chambers and side rooms together formed a T-shape. The side rooms were replaced by niches in transitional-period tombs, which, in the fifth century, evolved into double-chamber tombs comprising a burial chamber and an antechamber. In the late Goguryeo period, the antechamber disappeared, leaving just the burial chamber and an entryway (Kim Wonyong 1980, 55-59; Ju Yeongheon 1977, 33-82).

The tomb murals reveal thematic changes over time. In the fourth to fifth century, the principal theme was the portrait of the deceased, as found in Anak Tomb No. 3 (dated 357) and Deokheung-ri Tomb (德興里古墳, dated 408). Later, the seated image of husband and wife gained popularity as witnessed by the murals in Yaksu-ri Tomb (藥水里古墳), Ssangyeongchong (雙楹塚, Tomb of the Twin Pillars), and Gakjeochong (角抵塚, Tomb of the Wrestlers). Another important theme of the early- and middle-period murals was daily life, particularly narrative scenes that recount an event from the life of the deceased; portraying daily life and customs, the murals in Muyongchong (舞踊塚, Tomb of the Dancers) exemplify such narrative scenes. In addition to scenes of everyday life, the Four Directional Deities appeared in tombs of the early and middle Goguryeo periods, first on the ceilings and then gradually on the walls. In the late Goguryeo period, the directional deities came to occupy the walls themselves. Such compositional changes may have resulted from the rise of Taoism, which was officially sanctioned by the Goguryeo state in the seventh century, rather than from the waning influence of Buddhism, which had flourished during the early and middle Goguryeo periods.

The changes in mural themes show a gradual movement from the complex to the simple: portraits and scenes of everyday life in the early period; scenes of daily life and the Four Directional Deities in the middle period; and the Four Directional Deities alone in the late period. Processional scenes and hunting scenes, all of which featured numerous individuals, also disappeared after the fifth century, in line with the trend towards simplification.

With regard to skill, the initial rudimentary painting techniques gradually became more refined and sophisticated, exhibiting the dynamism and tension that characterize Goguryeo tomb murals. Over time, the artists came to employ colors that were more vivid and resplendent. The murals have retained their vivid colors for well more than 1,000 years; in addition, the murals, even those painted directly on untreated stone walls, show little damage or degradation, all of which attest to the Goguryeo artists’ consummate skill, not only in painting but in developing non-fugitive pigments and exceptionally durable adhesives (Lee Jongsang 1993, 206-211).

In some instances, murals within the same tomb were created by different artists. The portraits of the deceased and his wife in Anak Tomb No. 3 display different levels of skill, dexterity, and artistic accomplishment, indicating they could not have been painted by the same hand. The same is true of the dancing scene on the east wall and the hunting scene on the west wall in the burial chamber of Muyongchong.

Doubtless intended for tombs of members of royal and noble families, the murals were painted by artists possessed of considerable artistic skill and talent. As such they are valuable records that shed light on the artistic traditions of Goguryeo and on the artistic developments and distinctive characteristics of the period. In the absence of scrolls or other portable paintings from this period, the murals are among the few artifacts that provide insight into the artistic techniques, trends, and standards of the Goguryeo painting tradition. The murals provide precious documentation for a multi-faceted view of the ancient Korean kingdom, including the nature and spirit of the Goguryeo people, their aesthetic sensibilities, life and customs, style of dress and headgear, architecture, household furniture and utensils, as well as burial practices, religious beliefs, thoughts, views of the universe, and cultural exchanges.

Early Period Tomb Murals

Anak Tomb No. 3

Anak Tomb No. 3 is a stone-chamber / earthen-mound tomb comprising an entryway, a foreroom, an antechamber (with two side-rooms, one each to the east and west), and a burial chamber (all aligned on a south-north axis) (Fig. 3). One of the oldest heretofore discovered, this tomb, which was constructed of basalt and limestone blocks, is especially significant in charting the origins of Goguryeo tomb murals.

Fig. 3. Layout of Anak Tomb No. 3

The murals present a rich variety of themes. Guards grace the walls of the entryway, while depictions of a kitchen, meat storage room, barn, and carriage shed decorate the walls of the antechamber’s east side-room, and portraits of the deceased and his wife the walls of its west side-room. Murals depicting guards, dancers, and musicians embellish the south wall of the antechamber, while dancers and musicians adorn the east and west walls of the burial chamber. A grand procession appears on the walls of the corridor that extends along the east and north walls of the burial chamber. High-ranking military officers appear on the left and right walls of the entrance in the west side-room (Fig. 4). The inscription above the officer on the left, which translates “Dongsu (冬壽), who held various government posts, died at the age of sixty-nine in the thirteenth year of Young-hwa (永和, 357),” has sparked ongoing controversy concerning the nationality of the tomb occupant (Archaeology and Folklore Institute of the State Academy of Sciences 1958; Gong Seokgu 1998, 102-103).

Fig. 4. High-ranking military officer, west side room, Anak Tomb No. 3

Chinese scholars claim that the tomb belongs to Dongsu (冬壽, Ch. Dongshou; active, fourth century), a general of Former Yan (前燕, 337-370) who surrendered to Goguryeo; by contrast, North Korean scholars contend that it is the tomb of a Goguryeo king, either King Micheon (美川王, r. 330 – 331) or King Gogugwon (故國原王, r. 331 – 371) (Kim Jeongbae 1977, 12-25; Gong Seokgu 1998, 102-138). It seems evident that the interred was a member of a royal family, based on the characters written above the military officer, the presentation of the tomb occupant wearing a king’s white silk headgear, the three-tiered ceremonial standard symbolizing a king which is portrayed to the left of the tomb occupant’s portrait, and the appearance of a king’s standard next to the main figure in the procession scene. This suggests that Dongsu, who is mentioned in the crudely written inscription above the military officer mentioned above, is not the tomb occupant, but a military officer appearing at the entrance (Jeon Junong 1959, 20). The inscription, which dates the tomb to 357 at the earliest, indicates that, at the latest, Goguryeo began constructing mural tombs in the fourth century at the latest.

The west side-room boasts the tomb’s most dramatic murals: a portrait of the deceased on the west wall (Fig. 1) and a portrait of his wife on the south wall (Fig. 5). The master sits cross-legged under a canopy, his slanted shoulders and the wide space between his knees forming a triangle. Dressed in a red robe, he wears the white silk headgear, which was reserved for a Goguryeo king, according to the Old Book of Tang (舊唐書 16冊 東夷傳 高麗條). He holds a feathered fan in his right hand, and, with his left hand before his chest, he appears as if poised to deliver a Buddhist sermon. Such a deified representation suggests he is a royal personnage.

Fig. 5. Portrait of the deceased’s wife on the south wall of the west side-room, Anak Tomb No. 3

The tomb occupant is flanked by attendants who differ in size according to rank, the composition thus assuming a triangular form—a compositional arrangement typically found in early East Asian figure paintings. The figures’ narrow, slanting shoulders recall those in contemporaneous East Asian Buddhist paintings. One of the oldest portraits in the history of Korean art, this painting has immense art-historical value. Differing from portraits of the Goryeo (高麗, 918 – 1392) and Joseon (朝鮮, 1392 – 1910) periods, however, the tomb occupant’s face lacks identifying personal features.

The same is also true of the portrait of his wife, as she and her female attendants lack distinctive facial traits, all exhibiting the same faces with chubby cheeks, long narrow eyes, and small mouths. The wife’s elaborate dress and hairstyle contrast with those of her attendants, indicating a hierarchical presentation. One of the earliest female portraits in the history of Korean art, this painting has great historical significance.

The murals’ depiction of the kitchen, meat storage room, carriage shed, well, and stable reflect the affluent lifestyle of the nobility (Figs. 6 and 7).

Fig. 6. Kitchen represented in the antechamber east side-room, Anak Tomb No. 3

Fig. 7. Stable represented in the antechamber east side-room, Anak Tomb No. 3

However, the mural that most clearly illustrates the power and prosperity of the tomb occupant is the grand procession scene that features as many as 250 figures (Fig. 8). Adorning the walls of the corridor (10 meters in length, 2 meters in height) running along the east and north walls of the burial chamber, the procession scene vividly portrays the tomb occupant sitting in a carriage in a dignified manner, surrounded by marching civil and military officials, honor guards, cavalry, and musicians. The mural demonstrates outstanding artistry in the rendering of a large number of figures, effectively creating a sense of depth and recession into three-dimensional space. Although individual facial features and expressions are not clearly portrayed, the overall composition and its proportions exhibit a high level of sophistication.

Fig. 8. Procession scene on the corridor wall, Anak Tomb No. 3

Another noteworthy mural is the scene of subak (手搏, bare-handed martial arts), which features a man (presumed to be the tomb occupant) engaged in a match with a hawk-nosed man from the Western Regions (Fig. 9). The influence of the Western Regions, which is apparent in the lantern ceilings (laternendecke) of the tomb chambers (Kim Byeongmo 1978, 1-26), evinces that in the fourth century Goguryeo directly or indirectly adopted cultural elements from both China and the Western Regions.

Fig. 9. Subak scene, Anak Tomb No. 3

Buddhist-inspired motifs are another notable feature of this mural tomb. An open lotus blossom adorns the burial-chamber ceiling (Fig. 10), while open lotus flowers and lotus buds appear along the top and in the four corners of the canopied chair in the portraits of the husband and wife. Goguryeo officially accepted Buddhism in 372, the second year of the reign of King Sosurim (小獸林王, r. 371 – 384). In fact, official acceptance occurred fifteen years after this tomb’s construction; however, the mural demonstrates that Buddhist culture had been transmitted to the kingdom, at least in part, earlier than the religion’s official date of acceptance (Bureau of Dharma Propagation of Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism 2011, 14; Jeong Seonyeo 2007, 20).

Fig. 10. Lotus flower on the lantern ceiling of the burial chamber, Anak Tomb No. 3

The shape of the lotus buds on the corners of the canopied chair is distinctive of Goguryeo. Similar representations appear in other Goguryeo tomb murals as well as on the plinth of the Tamamushi Shrine (玉蟲廚子), which is housed in the Hōryū-ji Temple (法隆寺) in Nara, Japan. It has been confirmed that the Tamamushi Shrine, which dates to the early seventh century, reflects artistic influence from Goguryeo (Uehara Kazu 1996, 220-232).

Deokheung-ri Tomb

Discovered in 1976 at Deokheung-ri, Gangseo District, Nampo in South Pyeongan Province, Deokheung-ri Tomb, which was constructed in 408, is a two-chamber mural tomb comprising a burial chamber and antechamber. Even though separated in time by fifty years, Deokheung-ri Tomb and Anak Tomb No. 3 (dated 357) share many features, including the long epitaph and the rich murals featuring the tomb occupant, a procession, a stable, and a hunting scene (Figs. 11) (Academy of Social Science 1981; Gong Seokgu 1998, 139-140; Yi Incheol 1998, 1-3).

Fig. 11. Layout of murals, Deokheung-ri Tomb

The north wall of the antechamber bears a fourteen-line epitaph indicating that the tomb occupant, named Jin (鎭) (surname is obliterated), was a disciple of Shakyamuni Buddha, held several high-level government posts, including a military post, died at the age of seventy seven, and was interred in the eighteenth year of Yeongnak2 (永楽, 408) (Joseon Illustrated News Magazine 1986, 117-120).

The portraits of the tomb occupant appear on the north walls of both antechamber and burial chamber. The portrait in the antechamber conveys the dignified air of the deceased receiving homage from the governors of the thirteen commanderies (Fig. 12). The tomb occupant wears the blue silk headgear reserved for high-ranking ministers and holds a fanshaped object in his right hand. This painting shares many similarities with the portrait in Anak Tomb No. 3: the triangular arrangement of the figure, who sits with legs crossed on a canopied chair; his left hand poised as if preparing to give a Buddhist sermon; the shape and type of the headgear; and the face’s perfunctory expression. Only slight differences attributable to the gap of fifty years can be observed in the details. The thirteen governors are virtually identical in appearance and clothing; they all have large eyes and mustaches, and they lack distinguishable facial features.

Fig. 12. Tomb occupant receiving the homage of governors on the antechamber north wall, Deokheung-ri Tomb

An interesting aspect of the second portrait, on the burial chamber’s north wall, is that it occupies only half of the wall surface (Fig. 13), the remaining half likely reserved for the wife’s portrait. It remains unknown why the portrait of Jin’s wife (who presumably died sometime after Jin) was not painted and the space left blank. Still, this shows that murals of husband and wife seated together began to appear early in the fifth century.

Fig. 13. Portrait of the tomb occupant on the north wall of the burial chamber, Deokheung-ri Tomb

The portrait of the deceased in the antechamber continues the artistic tradition of the portrait seen in Anak Tomb No. 3, which was subsequently passed on and informed the portraits found in Taeseong-ri Tomb No. 2 (台城里2號墳) and Gamsinchong (龕神塚, Tomb of the Niche Deity). Meanwhile, the custom of painting husband and wife seated together in the burial chamber continues in the married-couple portraits in Yaksu-ri Tomb, Maesan-ri Sasingchong (梅山里四神塚, Four Directional Deities Tomb in Maesan-ri), Ssangyeongchong and Gakjeochong (Ahn Hwi-Joon 2013, 99-174). The general trend from the early fifth century onward likely was to paint portraits of the couple together rather than just the tomb occupant alone. Grand procession scenes of the type featured in both Deokheung-ri Tomb and Anak Tomb No. 3 also appear in Yaksu-ri Tomb, though such scenes gradually lost favor and disappeared.

Of particular note is the hunting scene on the eastern portion of the vaulted ceiling of the antechamber, which features warriors on horseback (Fig. 14). The depiction of humans and animals in this oldest known Goguryeo hunting scene is rudimentary. Mountains appear for the first time in this mural, though they are rendered in a crude, awkward style and appear flat, like wooden boards arranged in a straight line; and the trees on the peaks look more like mushrooms than trees. Nevertheless, the mural holds great significance as one of the earliest examples of landscape painting in Korea (Ahn Hwi-Joon 2012, 121-206; 1980, 12-14; 1998, 296-297).

Fig. 14. Hunting scene on the ceiling of the antechamber, Deokheung-ri Tomb

The ceiling murals of Deokheung-ri Tomb display a richer variety of motifs than those of Anak Tomb 3. In the vaulted ceiling of the antechamber, the sun, hunters, a cosmic bird, and a winged fish adorn the eastern portion; the moon, flying jade maidens (玉女), immortals, and birds with human heads—such as cheonchu (千秋) and manse (萬歲)—occupy the western portion; the Milky Way, the cowherd (牽牛) and weaving maiden (織女), and auspicious birds, such as gilli (吉利) and bugwi (富貴), embellish the southern portion; and the epitaph, mountains, and a heavenly horse, occupy the northern portion. Drifting clouds and constellations representing the heavenly world are also depicted throughout the entire ceiling. The cosmic bird is the prototype of the bird symbolizing the sun that appears in the Silla-period Eumnae-ri Mural Tomb (順興邑內里壁畵古墳) in Sunheung-myeon, Yeongju, North Gyeongsang Province (Ahn Hwi-Joon 2013, 211-233); that tomb has an inscription dated to the gimi year (己未年, 479). The cowherd and weaving maiden on the southern portion of the ceiling show a Korean rendering of the Chinese folktale (Fig. 15), and the heavenly horse on the northern portion of the ceiling is regarded as the origin of the type of heavenly horse represented in the famous Silla Cheonmachong (天馬塚, Tomb of the Heavenly Horse) in Gyeongju, North Gyeongsang Province, and also the one in Goguryeo Muyongchong (Ahn Hwi-Joon 2013, 209-233).

Fig. 15. Cowherd and weaving maiden on the antechamber ceiling, Deokheung-ri Tomb

The multi-colored pleated skirts worn by the weaving maiden and the attendants to the tomb occupant’s wife are remarkably similar to the attire of the noblewoman in Susan-ri Tomb and that of the female figures in Takamatsuzuka Tomb (高松塚), a Goguryeo-style Japanese mural tomb in Asuka, Nara (Ahn Hwi-Joon 2013, 99-174; 175-191). The clothing is representative of the early fifth-century Goguryeo style, as featured in Deokheung-ri Tomb; in the late Goguryeo period that style exerted strong influence on Japan, particularly in the late seventh to early eighth century.

Middle Period Tomb Murals

Gakjeochong and Muyongchong

As discussed above, portraits of the tomb occupant and his wife constitute the central theme of early Goguryeo tomb murals as witnessed by Anak Tomb No. 3 and Deokheung-ri Tomb. Other popular themes were procession and hunting scenes, which featured large numbers of individuals. The disappearance of such motifs from tomb murals thus serves as an important indicator for dating tombs and understanding changes in mural theme, style, and composition.

In this context, Muyongchong and Gakjeochong deserve particular attention. The two tombs are located side by side at the southern foot of a mountain in Tonggu. The two tombs’ many shared similarities indicate that they were constructed about the same time. Each comprises two chambers: an antechamber which is significantly smaller than those of the earlier period and a burial chamber with an octagonal ceiling that narrows toward the top. The tombs are constructed with large, finely worked, brick-shaped stones; their interiors convey the impression of a wooden structure; and the murals, which are painted on lime-plastered walls, are similar in content and style.

Gakjeochong presumably dates from a slightly earlier period than Muyongchong. Its painting of the deceased and his wife continues the traditions of early mural tombs from the fourth and fifth centuries (i.e., Anak Tomb No. 3, Deokheung-ri Tomb, Yaksu-ri Tomb, Maesan-ri Sasinchong, Gamsinchong, and Ssangyeongchong).

Most prominent among the Gakjeochong murals is the portrait of the tomb occupant and his wives on the burial chamber’s north wall (Fig. 16). The master is seated upright and presented in frontal view; his two wives, each shown in three-quarter view, kneel and face him. Dressed in armor, the master wears a sword at his waist. A bow and arrow rest on the table behind him. The inclusion of the weapons, together with the wives’ solemn posture, suggests that the man is about to take leave for the battlefield. In portraying narrative details from an event in the deceased’s life, the mural shows a departure in style from earlier portraits.

Fig. 16. Portrait of the tomb occupant and his wives on the north wall of the burial chamber, Gakjeochong

The east wall of the burial chamber in Gakjeochong features a scene of ssireum (Korean wrestling) in which the tomb occupant and a large-eyed, hawk-nosed man (presumably from the Western Regions) wrestle under a large tree (Fig. 17). The sophisticated rendering of the figures—with glaring eyes, thick calves, and energetic movements, executed in thin, sharp lines—shows a marked improvement over the figures in the murals of Anak Tomb No. 3 and Deokheung-ri Tomb. The large tree divides the composition into two, and focuses attention on the wrestling scene.

Fig. 17. Ssireum scene on the east wall of the burial chamber, Gakjeochong

The Muyongchong tomb presents the portrait of the deceased in a fashion very different from that of Gakjeochong. In contrast to the style of earlier tombs, the Muyongchong burial chamber’s north wall features a painting of the tomb occupant listening to a Buddhist monk preaching (Fig. 18). The master is not seated upright and presented in frontal view, as in earlier portraits; rather, all of the figures are seated in chairs and shown in profile, the tomb occupant, in hierarchical fashion, portrayed larger in scale than the others, and the preaching monk (i.e., the one nearest the master) portrayed only slightly smaller in scale. The quantity of food and the size of the table also vary according to the status of the figure. This hierarchical presentation expresses the figures’ relative social importance.

Fig. 18. Tomb occupant and Buddhist monks on the north wall of the burial chamber, Muyongchong

The tomb occupant and attendants wear dotted trousers and long, belted upper garments that fasten on the left side. The deceased’s trousers are wide and capacious while the attendants serving the food wear tight-fitting pants, revealing that social status even determined the width of pant legs.

The east wall of the burial chamber features the well-known scene of dancing figures, from which derives the tomb’s name (Fig. 19). Based on their pretty faces, smooth faces lacking facial hair, and wide hips, the dancers are presumed to be women. The earrings worn by some of the dancers dressed in male attire make this more plausible. Their faces are exceptionally small in proportion to their bodies; they wear robes with long flowing sleeves, and each extends the left arm to its full length (with the end of long sleeve hanging vertically). A similar interpretation of this particular theme also occurs in a mural in Jangcheon Tomb No. 1 (長川1號墳) in Changchuan(長川), Ji’an.

Fig. 19. Dancing scene on the east wall of the burial chamber, Muyongchong

The well-known hunting scene in Muyongchong is outstanding for its artistry (Fig. 20). Enlivening the burial chamber’s west wall, it masterfully captures the vigor and spirit of the Goguryeo people. With horse-mounted hunters appearing between the large tree and the mountains, it effectively conveys the urgency of the chase as well as the tension between hunters and fleeing quarry. The scene’s energy and dynamism is characteristic of Goguryeo painting. Both the appearance and the rapid motion of the figures and animals have been captured with a dexterous skill far superior to that of the dancing scene, indicating that they are by different hands.

Fig. 20. Hunting scene on west wall of the burial chamber, Muyongchong

In contrast to the animals and hunters, the mountains, which are rendered in alternating thick and thin undulating lines, appear flat and stylized. This shows that, despite an improvement over the mountains in the Deokheung-ri Tomb mural (Fig. 14), landscape painting was still in its infancy in fifth-century Goguryeo (Ahn Hwi-Joon 1980, 16-33). The variation in the coloring of the mountains—from the white of the nearest ones, to the red of those in the middle distance, to the brownish-yellow of those in the far distance—exhibits the influence of Chinesestyle coloring techniques.

Jangcheon Tomb No. 1

Other especially noteworthy mural tombs from the middle period and located in Ji’an are Jangcheon Tomb No. 1 and Samsilchong (三室塚, Tomb of the Three Chambers) (Jilin Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, and the Cultural Relics Preservation Office of Ji’an County 1982, 154-173). Both tombs date to the fifth century; the triangular corbels of their lantern ceilings feature paintings of muscular men who appear in a semi-squatting position and support the ceilings with their arms and hands. But the two also reveal distinct differences: Jangcheon Tomb No.1 comprises two chambers, and Buddhist-related iconography abounds in its murals, whereas Samsilchong claims three chambers, and paintings of muscular men embellish most of the chamber walls (Fig. 25).

Except for the images of the sun, moon, and constellations representing the Big Dipper that appear on its ceiling, the burial chamber in Jangcheon Tomb No. 1 is embellished almost completely with lotus blossoms, evincing that Buddhist influence had reached its zenith. Divided by thick reddish brown lines into three horizontal registers, the antechamber’s east wall portrays the deceased couple and people singing in the uppermost register and dancers and spectators in the lower registers. This compositional division may have arisen from the need to make efficient use of the limited space. The dancing scene shows a stylistic affinity to that on the east wall of the burial chamber in Muyongchong.

Muyongchong also includes a hunting scene (Fig. 20) similar to that in Jangcheon Tomb No. 1 (Fig. 21). The hunting scene in Jangcheon Tomb No.1, which appears on the west wall of the antechamber, shares the space with the scene of an outing, which differs from that in Muyongchong. Hunters appear in the lower register, and people enjoying themselves outdoors in the upper register. Another example of hunting and outing scenes grouped together in the same space occurs in the Goguryeo-influenced painting on the red leather ground affixed to the rosewood lute housed in the Shōsōin Repository (正倉院) in Nara, Japan (Fig. 22) (Ahn Hwi-Joon 2013, 175-191). The energy, dynamism, and vitality emanating from the combined hunting and outing scene in Jangcheon Tomb No. 1 compare favorably to those in the hunting scene in Muyongchong. The tree at the upper right is depicted more realistically than that in the Muyongchong mural, displaying an advance in the portrayal of trees.

Fig. 21. Hunting and outing scene on the west wall of the antechamber, Jangcheon Tomb No. 1

Fig. 22. Hunting and outing scene, rosewood lute, Shōsōin Repository, Japan

Buddhist-inspired images fill the antechamber’s ceiling of Jangcheon Tomb No. 1. The most eye-catching among them is the scene of Buddhist worship, which appears on the ceiling of the entrance to the passageway connecting antechamber and burial chamber (Fig. 23) (Moon Myungdae 1991, 137-153; 1998, 55-72; Kim Lena 1996, 81-85; Min Byeongchan 2005, 93-136). It features a Buddha seated on a pedestal with hands clasped in front of his abdomen; shaggy dog-like mythical lions seated to the left and right of the pedestal, their tongues hanging out; and two figures kowtowing in worship before the Buddha, their heads touching the ground. In the absence of Goguryeo images of the Buddha dating before the sixth century, and with no surviving large-scale Buddhist images enshrined in temples, this scene of Buddhist worship constitutes a valuable source for understanding the fifth-century Goguryeo representations of the Buddha. Bodhisattvas on lotus pedestals and scenes of transmigration through lotus blossoms adorn the antechamber ceiling, as do various images of lotus blossoms.

Fig. 23. Scene of Buddhist worship on the ceiling of the antechamber, Jangcheon Tomb No. 1

Samsilchong

Samsilchong comprises three chambers. The mural on the first chamber’s south wall is divided into upper and lower registers; the upper register features the deceased couple and their attendants, the lower register a hunter mounted on horseback, with a hawk perched on his left arm. The tomb occupant’s trousers are wider and more capacious than those of the tomb occupant in Muyongchong; his finely dressed wife follows behind him. Like the Muyongchong mural, the painting depicts an event from the life of the deceased couple. The north wall of the first chamber features a fortress of zigzag configuration with a gate and gate tower and also a battle scene with warriors in full battle gear. It is comparable to the warrior mural in Ssangyeongchong but is not as elevated in quality.

The Four Directional Deities, immortals playing musical instruments, auspicious birds, mystical animals (including a single-horned, unicorn-like animal), and scenes of rebirth through lotus blossoms adorn the tomb’s walls. The most striking of the murals are those embellished with muscular men, who stand guard at the entrance to the tomb chambers and appear in various guises, some clad in armor and carrying a sword, others with a snake about the neck (Fig. 24). Shown in semi-squatting pose, the ones in the triangular corbels visually bear the weight of the ceiling with their arms and hands (Fig. 25), like the muscular men in Jangcheon Tomb No. 1. All have broad shoulders, slim waists, thick wrists and ankles, and glaring eyes, and all wear robes with rounded necklines that differ from ordinary attire. Fluently executed with bold lines, the muscular men exude supernatural power and strength.

Fig. 24. Guard on the entrance walls, Samsilchong

Fig. 25. Muscular man on the triangular corbels, Samsilchong

Late Period Tomb Murals

Mural tombs saw major changes during the late Goguryeo period (sixth to seventh century). First, multi-chamber and two-chamber tombs completely disappeared, and the tomb structure was reduced to just one chamber and an entryway. In Ohoebun Tomb No. 4 (五盔墳4號墓) in Ji’an, four stone biers appear in the single, small chamber, which demonstrates how strictly the policy of the single-chamber structure was observed.

Second, the tombs were constructed using large stone blocks, and the murals were painted directly onto the stone surface without a prior coating of lime plaster. This marks a departure from middle-period practices, in which lime plaster was characteristically applied to the surface of the finely worked, brick-shaped stones to provide a smooth, white ground on which to paint the murals. The practice of using large stone blocks and direct stone-surface painting actually dates back to the fourth century, as witnessed in Anak Tomb No. 3, but it became more prevalent in the late Goguryeo period.

Third, there was a major shift in the theme of the mural paintings. As exemplified by such mural tombs as Gangseodaemyo (江西大墓, Great Tomb in Gangseo) and Tonggu Sasinchong (通溝四神塚, Four Directional Deities Tomb in Tonggu), the Four Directional Deities dominated entire walls in the late Goguryeo period: the Azure Dragon on the east wall, White Tiger on the west, Vermilion Bird on the south, and Black Tortoise-and-Serpent (intertwined snake and tortoise) on the north.

If the four deities graced the chamber walls, the ceilings primarily featured supernatural beings. These motifs exhibit a strong influence from Taoism, which spread throughout Goguryeo in the late period, and contrast with the Buddhist-associated themes that flourished during the early and middle periods. As four-deity murals took the place of genre paintings, the murals no longer provide a means to observe the various aspects of Goguryeo culture. This thematic shift can be attributed to changes in religious beliefs as well as to a reduction in tomb space, which resulted in less wall space for mural paintings.

Fourth, the murals were rendered with great artistry. Despite the simplification of themes, the murals exhibited a higher level of sophistication in terms of artistic skill and technique than those of earlier periods. The vivid, naturalistic, even realistic depiction of the subjects shows a major evolution from the awkward representations of the early and middle periods. The murals’ compositional organization also exhibits outstanding artistry. The murals that embellish the walls and ceiling of Ohoebun Tombs Nos. 4 and 5, for example, boast a well-organized pictorial structure that conveys a sense of recession into three-dimensional space and thus gives the impression of a three-dimensional world.

Fifth, the power and dynamism that characterized all the arts of Goguryeo became even more prominent, as evinced by the painting of the Black Tortoise-and-Serpent in Tonggu Sasinchong (Fig. 26). The writhing movement of the snake’s contorted body as it coils around the tortoise, the fierce manner in which the tortoise and snake twist their heads to face each other, and the powerful motion emanating from the two creatures that sends the clouds scattering away all impart tremendous vigor and explosive energy. These intertwined creatures exude far greater dynamism than do the Black Tortoise-and-Serpent of Gangseodaemyo, thus demonstrating the artistic culmination of Goguryeo-style paintings in the seventh century.

Fig. 26. Black Tortoise-and-Serpent, Tonggu Sasinchong

Sixth, colors became more vivid and resplendent. Rich, vibrant colors including red, green, yellow, and blue are elegant, not gaudy. The level of expertise in developing pigments and adhesives must also be noted. Even those paintings executed directly onto the stone surfaces, without a lime-plaster coating, remain intact, showing little discoloration, deterioration, or degradation despite drops and rivulets of water occasionally running down the surface. This would have been impossible without the use of non-fugitive pigments and exceptionally durable adhesives; the development of such pigments and adhesives ranks among the outstanding technical achievements of the period.

Late Goguryeo tomb murals typically feature honeysuckle scrolls or dragon imagery in a decorative frieze that visually distinguishes walls from ceilings; the Four Directional Deities appear on the walls, while diverse motifs representing the heavenly world appear on the ceiling, those motifs including the sun and moon, dragons, immortals, mystical animals, auspicious birds, sacred herbs, and drifting clouds. The murals in late-period tombs in the Tonggu region feature muscular men, some as gatekeepers on the walls to the left and right of the entryway, others standing in the four corbels and visually supporting the ceiling. Such representations are reminiscent of the muscular men found in middle period mural tombs in the region, such as Jangcheon Tomb No. 1 and Samsilchong.

Though both are located in the Tonggu region and though both date to the late period, Tonggu Sasinchong and Ohoebun Tombs Nos. 4 and 5 exhibit significant differences in mural content and expressive technique (Figs. 26 and 27). The Ohoebun tombs are elaborately decorated with leaf patterns that sport figures, palmettes, and flame-within-leaf patterns. Images of writhing, intertwined dragons also abound in the murals. A yellow dragon symbolizing the center of the universe now occupies the center of the ceiling, pushing aside the fully-open lotus blossoms that were depicted in that location in the early and middle periods and the images of the sun and moon that were portrayed a little later. Such iconography reflects the belief in the mystical powers of the dragon. Such thematic and stylistic differences indicate that the Ohoebun tombs were constructed later than Tonggu Sasinchong.

Fig. 27. Figures on the north wall of the burial chamber, Ohoebun Tomb No. 4

Among the paintings on the ceiling corbels in Ohoebun Tombs Nos. 4 and 5, the most noteworthy are those that depict the heavenly beings Bokhui (伏羲, Ch. Fuxi), a god holding up the sun with a threelegged crow inside, and Yeowa (女媧, Ch. Nuwa), a goddess supporting the moon with a toad inside, each heavenly being portrayed with human head and snake’s body. The ceiling also features the gods of civilization who govern agriculture, fire, iron, and the wheel. It is difficult to determine why these gods of civilization appeared in tomb murals in the Tonggu region, but they are outstanding examples and seemingly are without parallels elsewhere. Such iconography is closely related to the Goguryeo view of the world, and it reflects the Goguryeo people’s profound interest in science and technology.

The well-organized composition and the rendering of celestial figures with lifelike facial expressions and movements bursting with vitality demonstrate the high artistic standards achieved in the late Goguryeo period. Also an important component of these murals, trees are rendered with much greater realism than those in murals of earlier periods. Even so, they are executed with the boneless (沒骨) method, which eschews outlines in favor of depiction though the application of controlled washes of color, as was done in the early and middle periods.

Motifs, such as Taoist immortals soaring through the heavens on the back of a dragon or crane, also reveal both the influence of Taoism, which flourished during the late period, and the evolution and development of the figure-painting tradition. The image of a Taoist immortal draped in an exotic tunic from the Western Regions and riding a crane, a scene featured on the ceiling of Tonggu Sasinchong, displays a unique blend of Taoist beliefs from China and cultural elements from the Western Regions.

Elements of landscape painting feature more prominently in late Goguryeo tomb murals, as is evident in the representation of mountains in the painting on the ceiling of Gangseodaemyo (Fig. 28); in the mural of the Black Tortoise-and-Serpent, trees and swiftly moving clouds on the north wall of the burial chamber in Jinpa-ri Tomb No. 1 (Fig. 29); and in the trees and mountains adorning the ceiling corbel in Nae-ri Tomb No. 1 (Fig. 30). These murals demonstrate both the evolution of landscape painting in Goguryeo and the higher level of artistry in representing landscapes that was achieved in the late Goguryeo period.

Fig. 28. Mountains on the ceiling, Gangseodaemyo

Fig. 29. Black Tortoise-and-Serpent and trees on the north wall of the burial chamber, Jinpa-ri Tomb No. 1

Fig. 30. Trees and mountains on the ceiling corbel, Nae-ri Tomb No. 1

Conclusion

Goguryeo tomb murals constitute a rich and invaluable cultural heritage that provide a vivid pictorial account of Goguryeo history and culture, and they offer unique insight into the distinctive characteristics of and developments in Goguryeo painting. They also provide a window into Goguryeo society, shedding light on both the shifts in religious beliefs and the cultural exchanges with other countries (Gwon Yeongpil 1996, 171-193; Uehara Kazu 1996: 220-232).

The murals from the fourth to the seventh century thus far discovered reveal considerable changes in theme and artistic technique over time. The awkward, even crude style of representation of the early phase gradually became more refined and polished in later years, embodying the power and dynamism characteristic of Goguryeo art.

Early tomb murals primarily featured genre scenes and portraits of the tomb occupant and his wife as well as hunting and procession scenes. In the middle phase, narrative scenes of daily life featuring the deceased couple as the main subjects replaced the portraits, and hunting and procession scenes disappeared. Accordingly, the portraits with their triangular compositions gave way to linear compositions that better characterize the narrative scenes. The late Goguryeo period saw genre paintings abandoned in favor of representations of the Four Directional Deities, which emerged as the central theme, in accordance with the reduction in tomb space and growing influence of Taoism. In that context, figures were seldom depicted in late-period murals, but the figures that were depicted, such as Taoist immortals and figures inside leaf patterns, exhibit a higher level of artistic merit compared to those in murals of earlier periods. The figures also reveal changes in style of hair and dress over time. Landscapes began to appear in tomb murals no later than the early fifth century, as evidenced in Deokheung-ri Tomb. As did other subjects, they developed a more sophisticated style during the middle and late periods and claimed an elevated sense of naturalism.