The Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology

I INTRODUCTION

Goryeo was founded in 918 when Wang Geon (王建, 877-943), as one of the hojok (豪族: powerful local gentry) of Gaeseong (開城), was enthroned in the wake of the fall of Gung-ye (弓裔, r. 901-918), the first King of Taebong (泰封, 901-918). Upon seizing power, Wang Geon assumed the title of Taejo (太祖: r. 918-943: Sacred Ancestor or Founding King) and tried to consolidate power and to establish his state by various measures including the relocation of the capital to his hometown, Gaeseong, in the following year. Meanwhile, Silla (新羅, 57 BC-935), albeit weakened, still persisted as a regional power in the southeastern part of the Korean peninsula; and Hubaekje (後百濟, 892-936), occupying the territory of the defunct Baekje (百濟, 18 BC-660) of the southwest, was growing stronger and looking for an opportune time to expand northward. Taejo was able to overcome this period of instability and eventually unified the peninsula in 936 by his victory over Hubaekje. The collapse of Silla had taken place the previous year in 935 with the surrender of Gyeongsunwang (敬順王, r. 927-935) and his men. Thus, eighteen years after its foundation, Goryeo became the sole power reigning over the Korean peninsula.

Despite having laid the foundations of the state, Taejo was saddled with challenges during the early years of Goryeo. Internally, there were constant conflicts and rebellions on the issue of succession to the throne. To the north, the nomadic tribe of Georan (契丹: Khitans or Qidan) was expanding its power and from time to time launching invasions into Goryeo. It was only in 1076, during the reign of its eleventh monarch, King Munjong (文宗, r. 1046-1083), that Goryeo was finally able to overcome such internal and external challenges and establish a strong, centralized monarchy supported by a bureaucracy. The next seventy years until the end of the reign of the seventeenth ruler – King Injong (仁宗, r. 1122-1146) – marked the heyday of the Goryeo dynasty, as reflected in an extended period of political and social stability and cultural florescence.

Goryeo's considerable cultural development was in part due to the state's recognition of the munban (文班: civil officials). The high society's extravagant lifestyles displaying power and wealth produced a culture of aristocratic taste among the nobility; and the subsequent need to satisfy the demands of that society resulted in the further development of a multi-faceted culture and the production of high quality works of arts and crafts. To meet the aristocrats' insatiable demands, governmental workshops were set up inside the capital, staffed by skilled craftsmen who produced wares for exclusive government consumption. As in the case of cheongja (靑瓷: celadon stoneware), the most representative Goryeo craftwork influenced by the ceramics of the Song dynasty, Goryeo craftsmen themselves strived to acquire the latest techniques from more advanced countries.

At Yeseong-hang (禮成港), Gaeseong's port of entry, trading ships from Song China, Japan, and even as far as Arabia dropped anchor, bringing rare and precious goods from all over the world. These imported luxury goods were destined for Gaeseong, the center of the ruling class, enriching the monarchy and the nobility. In turn, skilled craftsmen were able to make creative and refined goods based on the precious raw materials that had been imported. These various types of elaborate luxury items were not solely intended for the royal family and the aristocracy but were also used in foreign diplomacy as gifts and for general export, helping the economy of Goryeo to grow.

Goryeo produced numerous refined works of art and displayed excellent craftsmanship during its golden age, from the second half of the eleventh century to the first half of the twelfth century. The standards were set by the quintessential Goryeo Buddhist paintings, by metalwork decorated with delicate inlaid silver lines on a black/brown metal surface and by the clear beauty of the indefinable bisaek (翡色: jade-green color), winning universal admiration and attesting to the high level of artistic taste and the innately Korean aesthetic that the Goryeo people espoused. The exquisite najeonchilgi (螺鈿漆器: lacquerware inlaid with mother-of-pearl) also represents the epitome of Goryeo craftsmanship. Only a few pieces are still extant today, but in the mysterious radiance that jagae (자개: fragments of mother-of-pearl) emit, one can almost see the effort and the passion of the craftsmen of Goryeo to achieve refinement and beauty.

II THE ORIGIN OF GORYEO NAJEONCHILGI

During this golden age of Goryeo, in 1123, the first year of King Injong's reign, corresponding to the fifth year of the Xuanhe era, Xu Jing (徐兢), a member of the embassy sent by Emperor Huizong (徽宗, r. 1101-1126) of the Northern Song dynasty, visited Goryeo.

Xu Jing stayed in the capital Gaeseong for a month, closely observing the affairs of Goryeo at height of its prosperity. Upon his return, Xu submitted to the emperor a detailed report on all that he had observed while in Goryeo. The report is called Xuanhe fengshi Gaoli tujing (宣和奉使高麗圖經: An Illustrated Account of an Embassy to Goryeo in the Xuanhe Era).

Unfortunately the illustrated portion of the work was lost in the first year of the Jingkang (1126) era, during the war with the Jin that led to the fall of the Northern Song dynasty. However, copies of the manuscript describe the establishment of Goryeo, its royal palace, personalities, religion, geography, etc. in forty juan (comprising some 300 paragraphs), providing details of Goryeo from the perspective of the Chinese of the Song dynasty.

The book refers to objects made with mother-of-pearl as follows:

Although these references consist of only two sentences, Xu Jing's choice of words such as “extremely exquisite (極精巧)” and “extremely refined and to be treasured (細蜜可貴)” confirms today's understanding of Goryeo chilgi, and shows that Xu Jing had a favorable opinion about contemporary Goryeo wares inlaid in mother-of-pearl.

In the Yuanyou reign (元祐, 1086-1093) of the Northern Song dynasty, Fang Shao (方勺) wrote in the Shiwuyuanhui (事物原會: Treatise on Things) chapter of his book, Bozhaibian (泊宅扁), describing works inlaid in mother-of-pearl as a craft of Japanese origin: “Najeonchilgi originated in Japan and they appear ever-changing and show excellent craftsmanship (螺鈿漆器本出倭國物像百態頗極工巧).” The passage reveals the general misunderstanding at that time which considered Japan to be the origin of mother-of-pearl craftsmanship, since Chinese mother-of-pearl craftsmanship had by then declined so much relative to that of Japan, that the splendor and exquisite skill of the golden age of the Tang dynasty had been forgotten. Therefore, Xu Jing's impression of Goryeo najeonchilgi when he saw it for the first time with his own eyes must have been considerable.

From Xu Jing's description, Goryeo najeon craftsmanship had certainly reached a high level by the early twelfth century; but the kind of craftsmanship that comes to be described as “extremely refined, to be treasured” is not achieved overnight. Traditions accumulate over a long period: a cultural environment that is conducive to their development, and especially, highly skilled craftsmen are necessary to achieve such a level of craftsmanship. As two centuries had passed since the founding of the Goryeo dynasty, some essential conditions could have been met by this time. As mentioned above, however, the first century of the Goryeo dynasty was marked by political and social instability and the new dynasty would have required a long period of gestation for all the conditions to be in place for the attainment of such a high level of craftsmanship.

Most likely, the seeds of the craftsmanship that flowered in the early twelfth century had actually been sown during the Unified Silla period (668-935). They were, in all likelihood, well nurtured even during the chaotic last period of Silla and the beginning of Goryeo, and were later to blossom in the aristocratic culture of Goryeo in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Moreover, considering the fact that it was during the golden age of the Tang dynasty (618-907) that mother-of-pearl craftsmanship first flourished, China's very close relationship with Unified Silla should also be taken into consideration.

Unfortunately, no material evidence that can be confirmed to be of the Unified Silla has ever been found; the closest is just one bronze mirror inlaid with mother-of-pearl dated to the Tang period. Nevertheless, we can inquire about the general situation of the period surrounding overall lacquerware production. As it is clearly written in the Samguksagi (三國史記: History of the Three Kingdoms), Unified Silla had an office of lacquerware production named Chiljeon (漆典) as recorded thus: “In the reign of Gyeongdeogwang, Chiljeon became Sikgibang before being restored to Chiljeon (漆典景德王改爲飾器房後復故).” (Vol. 39, Miscellaneous Records [雜誌] 8, Palace Service [職宮中]). For a long time, however, no chilgi or lacquer ware that could be of this period had ever been found, leaving a big void in the history of Korean lacquer crafts. This void has been recently filled with the artifacts excavated from Anapji (雁鴨池: Anap pond), the igung (離宮: secondary palace) of Unified Silla that is renowned for its grand scale. Excavation was carried out from March 1975 to December 1976 and yielded about 30,000 pieces of artifacts and various fragments from the seventh to the ninth centuries when the igung was being used. They include many pieces of lacquer crafts like furniture, vessels, and ornaments, indicative of the popularity of lacquer ware during the Unified Silla period.

Of special note among the excavated items were the several pieces of lacquerware with orange and brown colored design on black background and a number of pieces of eunpyeongmungi (銀平文器: lacquerwares inlaid with patterns of silver leaf), which were discovered in Korea for the first time.4 These lacquer pieces show the same techniques that were used in chilhwa (漆畵: lacquer painting) artifacts excavated from the tombs of early Silla, indicating a carryover of the old tradition, and the those decorated with silver leaf show new characteristics of lacquer craft adopted from the Tang dynasty.

The term pyeongmun (平文 or 平脱, heidatsu) indicates flush surface decoration of lacquer objects by a thin leaf of gold or silver cut in a certain design, a technique which was popular in Tang China. Although further research on the production site of these specific pyeongmun pieces from Anapji needs to be conducted, the technique itself reveals that they are the fragments of the highest quality wares of the golden age, comparable to the treasures in the Shoso-in (正倉院: the Imperial Repository of Todai-ji, Nara). Even if these wares had been made in Silla, there is no doubt that they must have been influenced by the Tang technique. Although their place of discovery is not certain, two lacquered mirrors with flush gold and silver decoration of bosanghwamun (寶相華文: stylized floral motif), housed in the National Museum of Korea, are good examples of such pieces (Plates 1 and 2). It is regrettable that no najeonchilgi have been found in Anapji, but the excavation of pyeongmun artifacts with flush silver and gold decoration implies the transfer of lacquerware inlaid with mother-of-pearl from Tang to Silla as this was also a good example of a decorative technique imported from Tang China along with pyeongmun.

( Plate 1 ) Lacquered mirror with gold and silver decoration of stylized floral motif Unified Silla Diameter: 18.2 cm National Museum of Korea (donation by Lee Hong-geun)

( Plate 2 ) Lacquered mirror with gold and silver decoration of stylized floral motif Unified Silla Diameter: 15.3 cm National Museum of Korea

An evidential piece of such technology transfer is a lacquered mirror with mother-of-pearl decoration of flower and animal pattern, purportedly excavated from a Gaya tomb (Plate 3). Although there needs to be further detailed analysis on whether this mirror is truly from Gaya since there was no scholarly analysis before and immediately following the discovery, there is no question that it is from Korea. Furthermore, the mirror is decorated with flat fragments of mother-of-pearl, in a manner that is typical of the baoshijing (寶飾鏡: mirror with jewel ornaments) of the Tang period, with lapis-lazuli or turquoise dotting the background. This strongly indicates that the seeds of Goryeo's najeon craftsmanship had already been planted in the cultural soil of Unified Silla based on the mother-of-pearl technique of Tang China.

( Plate 3 ) Lacquered mirror with mother-of-pearl decoration of flower and animal pattern 8th-10th century Diameter: 18.6 cm National Treasure No. 140 National Museum of Korea

III DESIGN AND ORNAMENTATION TECHNIQUES OF GORYEO NAJEONCHILGI

01 DECORATIVE DESIGN

As seen from Xu Jing's comment on Goryeo najeonchilgi, describing it as “refined and to be treasured,” it is evident that the technique of najeonchilgi of Goryeo had already reached its pinnacle by 1123, the first year of King Injong. But it was only about 80 years ago that earnest discussion on its unique value and the technical characteristics based on studies of real artifacts began. As Yoshino Tomio (吉野富雄) pointed out, the catalyst for better understanding Goryeo najeonchilgi occurred by accident when a lacquered box inlaid with mother-of-pearl of chrysanthemum design and a lacquered case with lid with mother-of-pearl decoration of chrysanthemum and vine pattern (Plate 4) were excavated from tombs of the Goryeo period and temporarily transferred from the Yi Royal Household Museum to Japan in 1924 for repairs.

( Plate 4 ) Lacquered box with mother-of-pearl decoration of chrysanthemum, broken Goguryeo Yi Royal Household Museum (former National Museum of Korea)

At the time in Japan, there were a few pieces that were similar in technique and design to these two pieces of najeonchilgi. However, without any recognition of the najeonchilgi of Goryeo, people automatically perceived them as exotic lacquerwares inlaid with mother-of-pearl of whatever origin—whether from Japan or from China could not then be determined. But with the discovery of these najeonchilgi from a Goryeo tomb, bona fide Goryeo najeon made its first appearance and a definite understanding of Goryeo najeon became for the first time possible. Needless to say, najeonchilgi that were similar to these two items and had been transferred from Korea to Japan suddenly came under the spotlight.

Regrettably, however, the very items that first brought attention to Goryeo najeon are no longer available as the box (Najeon daemochil gukmun sangja) was broken to pieces and the case (Najeonchil gukdangcho hapja) was lost during the Korean War. It is only fortunate that Mr. Yoshino, who had examined the najeonchilgi in person, left a detailed written description.5 The relevant parts of his paper read as follows:

( Plate 5 ) Lacquered case for rosary beads with mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell decoration of chrysanthemum and vine scroll pattern Korean, Goryeo, 12th century H: 4.5 cm, Diameter: 12.4 cm Important cultural property of Japan Taima-dera, Nara

With respect to the Najeonchil gukdangchomun hapja (Plate 4) Yoshino continued as follows:

( Plate 6 ) Lacquered mojahap (incense container) inlaid with mother-of-pearl decoration of chrysanthemum and vine scroll pattern Korean, Goryeo, 12th century H: 3.5 cm, W (max): 9.3 cm Keishun-in, Kyoto

The primary reason that the above box and case are considered to be of Goryeo origin is that they were excavated from Goryeo tombs, but the crucial factor to note is the similarity between their inlaid patterns and those of Goryeo inlaid celadons. Najeon daemochil gukmun sangja was mostly decorated with crisscross chrysanthemum design inlaid in a sageokjamun (斜格子文: oblique lattice pattern) and the lid has its center divided to make a four-leaf pattern, inside which a landscape was engraved. Meanwhile, this chrysanthemum design seen here provides an important clue as to determining the production time of this box since the design was also commonly used in the sanggam inlaid celadon of Goryeo.

Although no extant sanggam cheongja containing this design has an inscription detailing the year of production, the same type of inlaid celadon was excavated from a tomb along with an epitaph that, by providing information on the deceased, can serve as a important mark in determining the date of its production. The celadon bowl inlaid with chrysanthemum and vine design now in the collection of the National Museum of Korea (Plate 7) was found in the tomb of Mun Gongyu (文公裕) in Gaepung (開豊), Gyeonggi-do (京畿道) along with the epitaph that contained the information that Mun Gongyu died in 1159, the thirteenth year of King Uijong (毅宗, r. 1146-1170). This celadon bowl with the same chrysanthemum patterns (in black and white inlay) as that on the Najeon daemochil gukmun sangja is, therefore, a valuable source for studies on the earliest Goryeo inlay technique as the celadon is one of the oldest examples of inlaid Goryeo celadon. It is highly possible that the Najeon daemochil gukmun sangja was produced around the same period as the celadon wan since they share the same pattern.

( Plate 7 ) Celadon bowl inlaid with chrysanthemum and vine scroll pattern Goryeo, 12th century Excavated from the Tomb of Mun Gongyu, Jangdan, Gaepung, Gyeonggi-do H: 6.2 cm, Diameter: 16.9 cm National Museum of Korea

Moreover, the Cheongja sanggammun wan (靑瓷象嵌文盌: a celadon bowl with inlaid patterns) that displays the same type of chrysanthemum design was also found in Jireung (智陵), the tomb of King Myeongjong (明宗, r. 1170-1197, died in 1198) located at Jangdan (長湍), Gyeonggi-do.6 The chrysanthemum pattern was evidently popular in the twelfth century, especially toward the closing years of the century.

With the Najeon daemochil gukmun sangja damaged, the only example of najeonchilgi with chrysanthemum design presently available is the Najeonchil gukhwamun gyeongjeonham (螺鈿漆菊花文經典函: Lacquered sutra case with mother-of-pearl decoration of chrysanthemum design) (Plate 8), originally owned by Mori Family and now housed in the Tokyo National Museum. Nonetheless, the rarity is not a great impediment to studying Goryeo najeonchilgi because the chrysanthemum pattern of numerous petals—the most prominent feature of this pattern—is indeed similar to the gukdangchomun most widely found on surviving najeonchilgi. The shape of the flower is almost the same and the only difference is found in the number of petals, demonstrating that the two patterns are closely related.

( Plate 8 ) Lacquered sutra case with mother-of-pearl decoration of chrysanthemum design Goryeo, 12th century H: 26.0 cm, W: 37.8 cm, D: 19.2 cm Important cultural property of Japan Tokyo National Museum of Japan

In fact, there are other characteristic features common to Goryeo najeonchilgi. The technique of using tortoiseshell painted on the underside shown in the Najeon daemochil gukmun sangja is also manifested in other pieces including the rosary case of Taima-dera, Japan. It was so popular a technique that it can be said to be representative of this particular age. There are also instances of the moranmun (牡丹文: peony design) (traditionally used as peripheral decorations on the outer edges of chests) assuming the main pattern in place of the gukdangchomun as in a series of sutra boxes (gyeongjeonham) with peony design as seen in the Najeonchil moran dangchomun gyeongjeonham (螺鈿漆牡丹唐草文經典函: Lacquered sutra case with mother-of-pearl decoration of peony vine design) of the Kitamura Art Museum (北村美術館) (Plate 9). The metal wires that are used to describe the vines and surrounding foliage were also popular at this time. These unique methods are consistently applied to all types of Goryeo najeonchilgi and are the chief decorative characteristics from which a variety of other patterns derive.

( Plate 9 ) Lacquered sutra case with mother-of-pearl decoration of peony and vine scroll pattern Korean, Goryeo, 13th-14th century H: 22.8 cm, W: 41.8 cm, D: 20.4 cm Important cultural property of Japan Kitamura Art Museum, Kyoto

As mentioned above, there were already a few examples of Goryeo najeonchilgi in Japan when the existence of Goryeo najeonchilgi was confirmed from excavations in Korea. Only a few have been discovered since then and there are mere ten pieces known to the world with only one piece kept in Korea, at the National Museum of Korea. It is the Najeon daemochil gukdangchomun bulja (螺鈿玳瑁漆菊唐草文拂子: Lacquered whisk handle with mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell decoration of chrysanthemum and vine design) (Plate 10) but its provenance is uncertain as there is only an oral account referring to a certain temple as its origin without any information on specific routes of transmission. The other extant najeonchilgi remain dispersed in Japan, Europe, or the United States, transported at some time via unknown routes from somewhere in Korea.

( Plate 10 ) Lacquered whisk handle with mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell decoration of chrysanthemum and vine scroll pattern Goryeo, 12th century Length: 42.7 cm, Diameter: 1.6 cm National Museum of Korea

For this reason, previous studies on Goryeo najeonchilgi have almost all been conducted by Japanese scholars and most of the studies have focused mainly on the patterns. There are fifteen najeonchilgi estimated to be of the Goryeo period and they are classified in Table 1. The categories (A, B, C, D) listed in the second column follow those established by Okada Jo (岡田讓),7 who divided the artifacts into four chronological categories, primarily on the basis of their patterns.

The artifacts discovered from Goryeo tombs such as the Najeonchil gukdangcho hapja and Najeon daemochil gukmun sangja are not included in the table but have been described above by Yoshino and are also introduced in Anthology of Ancient Places of Korea (朝鮮古蹟圖譜).8 There are also a few extant wares estimated to have been made during the transitional period from Goryeo to Joseon, which will be addressed at the end of this paper.

No. 15C′ in the Table (Plate 13) is an ornamental panel believed to be one side of a sutra case inlaid with mother-of-pearl with chrysanthemum design, now in a private collection in Kyoto, and misappropriated to decorate the front of a drawer in a small bookcase. Considered as a part of the sutra case, this najeon panel is listed following the six sutra cases classified as category C. The classifications of the Najeon daemochil gukdangchomun mojahap in No. 6B and of the najeon panel detached from a sutra case in 15C′ have been added by this author.

( Plate 11 ) Lacquered mojahap (incense container) with mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell decoration of chrysanthemum and vine scroll pattern Korean, Goryeo, 12th century H: 4.1 cm, W: 10.2 cm Private collection, Dajima Mitsuru

( Plate 12 ) Lacquered sutra case with mother-of-pearl decoration of chrysanthemum and vine scroll pattern Korean, Goryeo, circa 13th century H: 26.1 cm, W: 47.2 cm, D: 25.0 cm Tokugawa Reimeikan, Nara

( Plate 13 ) Panel from a lacquered sutra case with mother-of-pearl decoration of chrysanthemum and vine scroll pattern Korean, Goryeo, 13th century H: 25.6 cm, W: 47.3 cm, D: 25.0 cm Private collection, Kyoto

Okada believed the Mori family's sutra case in the Tokyo National Museum (No.1A, Plate 8) to be the oldest extant najeonchilgi and dated it to the mid-twelfth century. He considered that the sutra cases in category C were products of the thirteenth century created under the auspices of the Bureau of Sutra Case Production, which was newly established to oversee the production of ham (函: boxes) for Daejanggyeong (大藏經: Goryeo Tripitaka) in the thirteenth year (1272) of the reign of King Wonjong (元宗, r. 1259-1274). On the other hand, Okada classified the wares that were produced using both daemobokchae and najeon techniques under category B and dated them between A and C. He dated the wares of category D to the fourteenth century, toward the end of the Goryeo dynasty, based on the similarity of their designs with the najeonchilgi of Yuan China. However, his classification is not based on definitive facts but on assumptions: The Najeonchil gukhwamun gyeongjeonham is listed as 1A as the earliest example only because the inlaid celadon bowl that was excavated from the tomb of Mun Gongyu with clear information on its date is conveniently similar in the placement of chrysanthemum flowers in an oblique crisscross pattern, and the more delicate and elaborate chrysanthemum or peony designs are assumed to be of a later period in view of the natural development of patterns.

For example, the inner base of the hyeonja of the Najeonchil myogeum chomoksugeummun hyansangja (螺鈿漆描金草木水禽文香箱子: Lacquered incense case with mother-of-pearl and gold decoration of flowers, trees, and waterfowl) (Plate 14) excavated from a Goryeo tomb and now in the National Museum of Korea actually has the chrysanthemum placed in the same way as that on the surface of the sutra case classified as 1A. However, the chrysanthemum pattern applied on the edges of the top and bottom of this lid also shares similarities with the pattern found in the lower body of the sutra case No. 9C (Plate 12), which, according to Okada's classification, was made a century later. In other words, Okada's classification is not always chronologically precise.

( Plate 14 ) Lacquered incense case with mother-of-pearl and gold decoration of flowers, trees, and waterfowl Goryeo, circa mid-12th-13th century H: 11.2cm, W: 29.1 cm, D: 18.8 cm National Museum of Korea

Although there is no known study on the production date of this box, it may safely be attributed to the twelfth century considering the fact that the chomoksugeummun (草木水禽文) featuring the weeping willow, common reed, bamboo, wild geese, and duck was popular in this period, as seen in the bronze kundika with silver inlay of waterside landscape design in the National Museum of Korea (circa 11-12th century) or the fine celadon kundika inlaid with waterside landscape design in the Gansong Museum of Art (circa mid-12th century). In short, Okada's classification of the decoration is ambiguous and needs to be further revised.

Moreover, Okada's presumption that the use of similar patterns can indicate a similar production date is not always true and should be tested. Although the two techniques are very different from each other, it is very possible that the najeon pattern embedded on the surface of a lacquer artifact may be viewed as a kind of inlay pattern and, in that case, it is possibly najeon (which considerably predates celadon inlay as a decorative technique) influenced the development of the sanggam inlay technique. If this is the case, the manufacturing date of the earliest sutra case (No.1 in the table) may be far earlier than the mid-twelfth century.

As supportive evidence, Xu Jing's Xuanhe fengshi Gaoli tujing mentions najeon but not inlaid celadon. It implies that najeonchilgi had by then reached a high level of refinement, whereas the craft of inlaid celadon was only in its formative stage and therefore would not have gained the attention of a visitor from Song China.

02 DECORATIVE TECHNIQUES

The most distinctive and yet universal feature of najeonchilgi of the Goryeo period discussed here is the extremely fine pattern called jeolmun (截文) made by the jureumjil (주름질: patterns cut out by hand) technique. Each of the countless jeolmun made from a sheet of najeon was in itself not an independent pattern but a component of a larger pattern that is only achieved by numerous jeolmun of various shapes meticulously placed in a uniform manner. Most amazingly, the individual mother-of-pearl pieces on these najeonchilgi are all less than 1 cm in diameter. Xu Jing's comments on Goryeo lacquerwares inlaid with mother-of-pearl, "refined and to be treasured," must reflect his impression of these painstakingly embedded najeon pieces that created an exceptional design as well as requiring skilled hands.

The second distinct feature of the najeon technique lies in the metal wire which is combined with the najeon pattern. A variety of metals were used for the lines including silver, bronze, and brass, but there were two ways of applying the wires: a single wire and two wires twisted together, namely chakseon, as mentioned above.

The former was typically inserted as branches or vines of flower patterns, while the latter was used around the outer circumference or the edges of an object to reinforce the frame or as a border line to separate the surface into sections to be decorated. At times, a pair of lines as a set would make a line pattern that looks like the feathers at the end of an arrow (矢羽, siu) on the lacquered surface. In this author's judgment, these metal lines were extremely thin as well as even in width, and the cross-section of both the single and double wires was probably circular. These wires, together with slips of mother-of-pearl, were transformed into fern-like stems and branches and glued to the primed surface before being coated with lacquer. Then the surface of the lacquered object was rubbed to reveal the pattern and to flatten the wires.

The third characteristic is the combined use of daemobokchae with najeon. Although the main purpose of this technique was to utilize the semitransparent, glossy quality of tortoiseshell, it also served as a colorful protective layer. By coloring the underside of the shell, which was cut into shape by means of the jureumjil technique, and by gluing it onto the surface with the underside down, the color is effectively protected. A prototype of this is the rosary beads box listed as No. 2, Najeon daemochil gukdangchomun yeomjuhap (螺鈿玳瑁漆菊唐草文念珠盒: Lacquered case for rosary beads with mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell inlay of chrysanthemum scroll design) (Plate 5) of Taima-dera, Nara. Inside the case is a line of amber rosary beads (yeomju), and the beauty of amber and tortoiseshell combined with the mysterious iridescence of najeon make this the essence of extreme brilliance and magnificence. Its beauty truly attests to the high aesthetic standards of the Goryeo people.

Regrettably, however, there remains only one piece in Korea that demonstrates such a sophisticated technique of combining najeon, daemobokchae, and metal wires. It is the Najeon daemochil gukdangchomun bulja (Plate 10) listed as No. 3. It was purportedly once a personal item of a monk and has been handed down in temples through the ages. Nonetheless, all the najeonchilgi classified in the B category by Okada feature the same splendid tortoiseshell decoration pattern displayed in the rosary beads case, implying that such an elaborate pattern was in style at that time. Moreover, in the lacquer artifacts of this category, the mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell produce almost the same decorative effect.

In truth, both the mother-of-pearl (najeon) and the tortoiseshell (daemo) techniques were already present in the craftsmanship transmitted from Tang China since the Unified Silla period. The two co-existed as traditional decorative techniques until daemo gradually fell out of use and najeon became the only decorative technique. One of the reasons for this is that the source of quality daemo was the southern seas, which meant that the trade was dependent on imports from China, and Goryeo was unable to meet the demand for it. In this regard, the najeonchilgi listed by Okada in the B category may have chronologically preceded the sutra case (gyeongjeonham) listed under category A, of which only the pistil of the chrysanthemum flower gukhwamun is made of red daemobokchae and the use of the daemo was only supplementary.

The detailed and refined najeon of Goryeo made a strong impression on Xu Jing probably because it exhibited distinctive characteristics that were absent even in the inlaid mother-of-pearl lacquerware of Tang China. This distinctiveness may be the manifestation of a unique Korean tradition and aesthetic. In the case of the mokji (木地: wood core) najeon technique of Tang, which consisted mainly of inlaying mother-of-pearl on wood like red sandalwood (紫檀, zitan), it was simply impossible to produce such wares decorated with refined jureumjil patterns of Goryeo. Moreover, because the beauty of the ever-changing multi-colored najeon is especially effective on the highly polished black lacquer surface, the true artistry of najeon in the Goryeo period may not have flowered without the long tradition of lacquer craftsmanship in Korea.

In fact, in Korea many lacquer wares of the Han dynasty have already been excavated from the ruins of the Nangnang (樂浪) site in present-day North Korea. Excavations since 1988 in particular have yielded numerous lacquer wares mostly painted in black. The artifacts excavated from the tombs of Daho-ri (茶戶里), Changwon (昌原), Gyeonsangnam-do (慶尚南道) - dated to the late first century BC because of findings of osujeon (五銖錢: coin in use during the early Han period; wu zhu qian in Chinese) and seongwungyeong (星雲鏡: bronze mirror; xing yun jing in Chinese) - are among the discoveries. There has been no shortage in the discoveries of lacquer wares from the post-Three Kingdoms Period and the lacquer wares excavated from Anapji truly exemplify the prevalence of lacquer craftsmanship in Korea during that time.

There is also a long tradition of precision engraving in Korea. The first known instances are gold items excavated from the tombs of Baekje and Silla during the Three Kingdoms Period. For example, the personal accessories decorated with gold wires demonstrate the exceptional skills of the craftsmen who strove for precision. The reason that the twisted metal wires were widely used in the najeonchilgi of Goryeo, but were never used in contemporary Tang China, is due to the tradition of precision gold handicraft of the Three Kingdoms Period. The Goryeo aesthetic and craftsmanship of precision in dealing with najeon is also closely related to such a tradition.

IV FOREIGN INFLUENCES AND UNIQUENESS FOUND IN GORYEO NAJEONCHILGI

It is now clear that the Goryeo najeon craftsmanship is based on that of Tang China and developed during the Unified Silla period. As discussed above, the Najeondan hwageumsu mungyeong (Plate 3) excavated from an old Gaya tomb was a typical example of bosikgyeong of Tang, decorated with thin, flat najeon. But are there any other examples that reflect in greater detail the close relationship between Goryeo and Tang craftsmanship?

Najeon craftsmanship involves mokhwa (木畵), carving and inserting into a surface another material of a different color and texture for decorative effect. This technique was presumably transmitted from the West to China a long time ago but it was certainly in Tang that the technique was in full bloom. The main use of mother-of-pearl during the Tang dynasty was as inlay on wood by carving, while patterns were mainly engraved on mother-of-pearl but also on other materials.

For instance, the mother-of-pearl pieces in the Shoso-in, Japan, such as Raden saitan gogen biwa (螺鈿紫檀五絃琵琶: a five-stringed biwa with mother-of-pearl decoration), Raden saitan genkan (螺鈿紫檀阮咸: a four-stringed genkan with mother-of-pearl decoration), Raden gyokudai bako (螺鈿玉帶箱: a box for a jade belt), and Raden daimai hakaku bako (螺鈿玳瑁八角箱子: an octagonal box with mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell decoration), all feature materials other than the main decorative material of najeon. Some mother-of-pearl patterns also feature jade or amber and tortoiseshell. The use of such translucent materials contrasted with and accentuated the splendor intrinsic to the opaque mother-of-pearl, bringing out the glitter of all the different colors.

Obviously, the Goryeo najeon decorated with daemobokchae, the splendid pattern on the rosary box (yeomjuham) at Taima-dera, in particular, is in line with the mother-of-pearl craft of Tang China mentioned above. An important item in explaining the 200 years gap from the end of Unified Silla under the peak of Tang najeon influence to the first appearance of najeon in the age of Goryeo is the four-stringed genkan with mother-of-pearl decoration (Plate 15)9 kept in the Northern Repository (Hokugura, 北倉) of the Shoso-in. This corresponds to the record of the 21st day of the sixth month, in the eighth year of Denbyo Shoho (天平勝寶, 756) stated in the chapter of “Gokugatsin Hocho” (國家珍寶帳, Records of Select Treasures) in the Todaiji Kenhucho (東大寺獻物帳: Records of National Treasures in Todai-ji):

( Plate 15 ) Four-stringed genkan with mother-of-pearl decoration, back Supposedly Chinese, Tang, circa 8th century H: 100.7 cm, W: 39.0 cm Northern Repository of Shoso-in, Nara

“…the lacquered genkan has a hanbal (plectrum guard) decorated with patterns in green… (螺鈿紫檀沅咸一面緣地畵捍撥緣臈納紫綾袋).”

Among the known genkan with a clear history, this lute is the oldest piece in the world and thereby an important historical article. The instrument consists of various parts such as the lower body (槽), the top where the strings are tied (鹿頸), and the upper body (頭), and they are all made of red sandalwood from Southeast Asia, while the center (腹板) is made of wild walnut tree. The glittering patterns all across the instrument are evocative of Tang court instruments. On the bottom border (落帶) are depictions of figures playing instruments and splendid flowers of miltahoe (密陀繪: litharge painting; Chinese: mituohui). The most beautiful feature is the decoration of sanggam inlay with valuable foreign materials like najeon, daemo, and amber which is found on the reverse side. Tang China was the only country in the world at that time sufficiently cosmopolitan to attract and amalgamate such rare foreign goods, and it was in Chang'an (長安), the capital, that such refined wares were made by Tang craftsmen.

The cosmopolitan adoption of foreign influences in Tang culture is evident in various forms: for example, in the Western-derived pattern of parrots flying around flowers while holding a sprig in their beak, and the mokhwa patterns, which were a conventional Western decorative technique, especially on lute instruments. To scrutinize further, it was not just najeon, daemo, or amber that were carved onto the sandalwood surface. The eight lotus petals incised on the lower part, the bead-shaped decoration that covers the edges of the petals, the lines surrounding the edges of the four petals on the sides, and the dangchomun on the neck were all inlaid with metal wire.

All the decorative techniques above are featured in the Taima-dera yeomjuhap, excluding the twisted metal wire and the amber. Along with the bokchae coloring technique Goryeo najeon embody the tradition of Tang lacquerwares inlaid with mother-of-pearl as manifested in the artifacts of the B category that purportedly represent the oldest decorative techniques. Between the two categories, there is a time lag of some 300 to 350 years. But in the decorative technique itself, there is no substantive difference. At the same time, on appearance alone, it is evident that there are differences in the overall pattern.

The same basic craftsmanship notwithstanding, the decorative patterns represent particular ethnic characteristics and aesthetics, which also changed with time. Such changes in taste can either be evolutionary or revolutionary. Although this is mere speculation, I believe that it must have taken a long time for the najeon craftsmanship that was first adopted from Tang to develop distinct Korean characteristics. Since the initial transfer of the craft took place when Silla was in decline, the further refinement of the alien craft took place after a period of gestation in the Goryeo era. In the meantime, one can imagine that a mark of distinct Korean craftsmanship gradually developed during this period of gestation.

The process accelerated during the golden age of Goryeo culture in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and reached full flower. The Najeon daemochil danchomun yeomjuhap at Taima-dera, despite its meticulous and elaborate patterns, is not from this golden age. At the same time, it embodies the emerging distinct Korean aesthetic while it faithfully represents the traditional Tang mother-of-pearl craftsmanship.

V THE GYEONGJEONHAM OF GORYEO WITH DANGCHOMUN AND THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL LACQUERWARE OF YUAN AND MING

The majority of extant najeonchilgi today are gyeongjeonham. As is evident in the Tripitaka stele, Daejangjeonbi (大藏殿碑) at Jikjisa (直指寺), Gimcheon (金泉), Gyeongsangbuk-do (慶尚北道), which was erected in the fifteenth year of King Myeongjong (1185) - “the three boxes in Jeondeung Temple are decorated with najeon, red lacquer, or gold … (以傳燈三函祖以螺鈿或以朱漆或口金而粧飾…)” - and in the section pertaining to the installation of the Jeonham joseongdogam (鈿函造成都監: Bureau of Sutra Case Production) in the thirteenth reign year of King Wonjong (1272) in the Goryeosa (高麗史: History of Goryeo), Volume 27, these kinds of najeon gyeongjeonham were deemed particularly suitable for storing grand gyeongjeon (經典: sutras). For this reason, sutra cases were used to store the Goryeo Tripitaka, and demand led to their mass production.

The eight extant sutra cases may generally be classified into three types, following Okada. Among the three types, the Najeonchil gukhwamun gyeongjeonham (No. 1A, Plate 8) of the Tokyo National Museum is undoubtedly the oldest, and is believed to be from the twelfth century. There still remains the question of its chronological classification in relation to the wares featuring colored tortoiseshell (daemobokchae) that Okada listed in the B category.

The sutra cases listed in the C category feature the same main pattern of chrysanthemum scrolls as the one in the Tokyo National Museum. Despite some minor differences in the detail of the patterns and in the production sites, it is reasonable to consider that they are from the same period as those listed in the A category. Okada claimed that the sutra cases of this category were made by the Jeonham joseongdogam, the state bureau installed in the thirteenth year of Wonjong (1272) for overseeing the mass production of sutra cases for the purpose of storing the Goryeo Tripitaka. In view of the fact that six among the eight extant sutra cases fall under the C category, Okada's proposition is certainly a reasonable one.

Needless to say, the mass production of sutra cases featuring such exquisite decorative details could not be possible without a corresponding organizational support and technology. In that regard, the establishment of the Jeonham joseongdogam reflects the peak of Goryeo inlaid mother-of-pearl production in both quality and quantity.

On the other hand, the decline of the Goryeo state during the fourteenth century led to a decline also in the cultural realm, and najeon craftsmanship lost some of its vitality as a result. If the sutra case in the collection of the Kitamura Art Museum (No. 16D, Plate 9) is from the fourteenth century, as it is thought, then this should be considered the last example of the splendor of Goryeo najeon.

On the point of technical craftsmanship, the jureumjil (주름질) technique using very small pieces of mother-of-pearl became more and more refined with time. The lotus which forms the main pattern in the sutra case of the D category had been used only as a complementary pattern in the sutra cases of the C category, in combination with petals in the shape of a gingko leaf. But in the sutra case of the Kitamura Art Museum (Plate 9), the edges of the leaf are curved delicately in a fern-like shape, and the numerous leaves on the metal wires have changed from the typical Goryeo najeon style seen in the C category to a more realistic and complex shape. To place the exceedingly small fragments of mother-of-pearl into such complex patterns would have been immensely challenging with traditionally known skills. Perhaps a technical breakthrough had taken place in the meantime.

The new technique was also reflected in the patterns themselves. The practice of dividing each section of the sutra case into two circles with either a metal wire or a bead line pattern and inserting a flower vine pattern growing out of a metal wire inside the inner circle as the main pattern is the same for the sutra cases of both the C and D categories. But on the frame-like outer circle surrounding the main pattern, lines of swirling hemp pattern and geometric flowers and hexagonal tortoiseshell patterns are incised by an entirely new technique named ggeuneumjil (끊음질) using jeolpae (切貝: mother-of-pearl cut in narrow strips). These kinds of geometric patterns are found in inlaid lacquer objects of Yuan and Ming China. Either the najeon craftsmen of Goryeo learned this new technique in China, or, considering the close nature of the bilateral relationship between the two countries, the technique may have been transmitted from Goryeo to China.

Moreover, gold intaglio lines arranged like a painting as well as the continuous tortoiseshell pattern made by cut gold sheets had already been introduced into Korea as seen in the pillows and foot supports of kings and queens excavated from the tomb of Muryeongwang (武寧王, r. 501-523) of Baekje. Closer in time, similar patterns are also found from time to time in the Buddhist paintings of Goryeo. Therefore, it may be said that there was already in place within the arts of Goryeo an indigenous source that could generate such geometric patterns.

This kind of refined technique that requires meticulous attention to detail can also be found in the mojo (毛彫: feather-like fine lines) patterns that were incised on lacquer objects inlaid with mother-of-pearl. For instance, the simple lines and angles found in the artifacts of the C category have changed into exquisitely elaborate patterns in the sutra cases listed in the D category.

Although only a few remain today, in the case of the sutra cases made to contain the Goryeo Tripitaka alone, a great number must have been created during this golden age of Goryeo najeonchilgi. Many undoubtedly ended up in China, and Yuan craftsmen would certainly have taken note of such Goryeo mother-of-pearl pieces. As is apparent from the inscriptions on several qiangjin jingdianhan (戧金經典函: sutra cases made with the qiangjin technique of engraving and filling with gold pigment) made in the second year of Yanyou (延祐) (1315) of Yuan China that had made their way into Japan, it would not have been difficult for Yuan workshops, with their advantage in number and organization, to produce artifact inlaid in mother-of-pearl superior to those made in Korea.

The sutra case in the Kitamura Art Museum which exhibits the most refined characteristics of Goryeo najeonchilgi is significant as a means of comparison between the najeon craftsmanship of Goryeo and Yuan. As lacquer craft originated in China, the common assumption is that most technical aspects of the craft also originated in China. However, it is not unreasonable to consider that even techniques that originated in one country may at times go through a period of maturation and take on new and innovative characteristics in another country, and in time influence the craft of the mother country.

VI FROM GORYEO NAJEON TO JOSEON NAJEON: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRANSITIONAL PERIOD

The mass production of sutra cases for the Goryeo Tripitaka under the auspices of the Jeonham joseongdogam made a significant contribution to the further development of najeon craft in Goryeo. The enterprise called for the employment of numerous craftsmen working under the institutional support of a state bureau.

The refined techniques developed at the Jeonham joseongdogam resulted in the making of the finest najeonchilgi of the Goryeo period, as evinced by the sutra case in the Kitamura Art Museum (Plate 9). However, the lack of artifacts or literary references with which to establish the chronological development of najeon of the late or post-Goryeo period has thus far been a serious impediment to the study of the subject. The decline of a particular craft after reaching its peak is a phenomenon that is certainly not limited to Goryeo najeon. In fact, it is not difficult to imagine that the collapse of the Goryeo dynasty in the fourteenth century may have brought about a precipitous decline in the once flourishing craft.

At the same time, considering the revival of najeon craft in the Joseon dynasty, the century-long transitional period between the decline of the Goryeo monarchy in the second half of the fourteenth century and the emergence of a new dynasty in the first half of the fifteenth century may also have been a transitional period for the emergence of a new style of Korean najeon. Although the tradition of najeon craftsmanship may have inevitably declined during that interval, the transitional period may also have been a period of gestation for a new form of najeon craftsmanship.

For instance, there are clear differences between the refined and precise peony scroll patterns on the sutra case in the Kitamura Art Museum, and the free and unregulated peony scrolls that are thought to have emerged sometime around the sixteenth century and which characterize the typical pattern of Joseon najeon.

The big differences between the two are rooted in the change in the decorative technique. For instance, the traditional technique behind the metal wire scrolls of Goryeo came to be replaced by a variation on the ggeuneumjil technique of the vine spray line pattern of Joseon. The change from metal wire scrolls to mother-of-pearl sprays meant that the vine stems became thicker, influencing the whole design. Flower patterns became bigger, and their numbers fewer, while complicated leaf patterns all but disappeared and a new scroll pattern with fewer and simpler leaves came to be adopted. On the one hand, the delicacy of Goryeo najeon became obsolete, while on the other, the free and bold curves of the new scrolls accentuated by the black ground was a style and technique that was found nowhere else but in Korean najeon. This new bold pattern came to define the new and original aesthetic of Joseon najeon.

The following are noteworthy examples of najeon wares of this transitional phase: the lacquered box with mother-of-pearl decoration of chrysanthemum and scroll design in a private collection in Kyoto, which retains the tradition of chrysanthemum vine scroll pattern but has visibly shed the vitality of the golden age, and displays some variation in the overall shape; the lacquered box with mother-of-pearl decoration of chrysanthemum and vine scroll pattern in a private collection in Hyogo is evocative of Goryeo najeon yet also gleams with the dynamism of a new pattern; and the circular lacquered case decorated with mother-of-pearl in chrysanthemum scrolls of the Tokyo National Museum; and the lacquered box with mother-of-pearl decoration of chrysanthemum and vine scroll pattern owned by the Ministry of Culture (presently kept in the Kyushu National Museum). Thus far, there has been no information with which to date these four objects inlaid with mother-of-pearl and decorated with chrysanthemum. But considering the patterns and techniques common to these wares, the fifteenth century seems the most likely. The first two feature almost the same chrysanthemum scrolls, whereas that on the last one has a different flower pattern with the scrolling leaf pattern lacking crispness in its ornate configuration.

There are only 20 extant Goryeo artifacts inlaid with mother-of-pearl (najeon) in the world today. Within Korea, the original center of its production, there is only one item, the fly-whisk (bulja) from a temple that is presently kept in the National Museum of Korea. The majority of the known Goryeo najeon are in Japan. Indeed, the najeonchilgi dispersed over Europe and America, variously kept in the British Museum, the Rijskmuseum Amsterdam in the Netherlands, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, have all been transmitted from Japan in the twentieth century. The main reason for this lack of Goryeo najeon within Korea and its foreign dispersal is that the Joseon dynasty adopted Confucianism as the state ideology while persecuting Buddhism. That the eight sutra cases, the rosary box of the Taima-dera, Nara, and the mojahap that are believed to have contained incense, were all handed down as implements in Buddhist temples is further evidence of the close association between najeon artifacts and Buddhism.10