The Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology

Introduction

Today, the uigwe records stand as a testament to the unparalleled archival culture of the Joseon Dynasty (朝鮮, 1392–1910). In acknowledgement of their archival value, they were granted recognition as UNESCO Memory of the World in 2007, and the uigwe copies stored at Seoul National University’s Kyujanggak, the Academy of Korean Studies’ Jangseogak, and the National Palace Museum of Korea were designated as state cultural heritage by the Korean government in 2016. The growing interest in the uigwe among both academics and the general public can be attributed to initiatives undertaken at Kyujanggak and Jangseogak to create lists, bibliographical introductions, and photographic editions of the uigwe in their possession, as well as efforts by organizations at various levels, such as the Institute for the Translation of Korean Classics, to distribute translated and annotated editions of the uigwe.

However, as research on the uigwe progresses, concerns have surfaced about the reliability of the records contained within them (An Ae-yeong 2009), which has sparked curiosity about the process involved in their production. Although numerous studies have delved into the records contained within the uigwe, there remains a lack of research as to how the books were actually produced.

In this paper, the author aims to analyze the Itemized Record of Uigwe Production (儀軌事目, Uigwesamok) section contained in each uigwe. Whenever a state event was completed, the directorate (都監, dogam) in charge of that event would establish the Uigwe Administrative Office (儀軌廳, Uigwecheong) for the compilation of the uigwe, creating this section in the process. Also referred to as simply uigwe or Specifics on Uigwe Production (儀軌事例, Uigwesarye), this section was typically appended to the end of the uigwe’s first part which contained the documents of the Head Office of the Directorate of the uigwe. Its purpose was to provide basic information regarding the uigwe’s production process, including where the Uigwe Administrative Office had been established, who belonged to it, what materials were needed for the production of the uigwe, and the locations where the uigwe had been distributed (Fig. 1). Below, the author sets out to analyze the Itemized Record of Uigwe Production sections contained in the fourteen following uigwe.

Fig. 1. The Itemized Record of Uigwe Production section produced by the directorate of the Uigwe for the Funeral of King Jeongjo. Joseon, 1800. 45.8 × 32.7 cm. Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, Seoul National University

Considering that the surviving uigwe were mostly produced between the seventeenth and the first half of the twentieth century, and given the hundreds of cases available for study, narrowing the analysis down to the above fourteen cases presented certain limitations. However, the selection of these specific cases was grounded in the availability of photographic editions and the way they showcased the diverse production processes of the uigwe during the period spanning from the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century.

Uigwe Administrative Office Locations and Belonging Officials

Locations Where the Uigwe Administrative Offices Were Established

Information on where the Uigwe Administrative Office was established can be found in the Itemized Record of Uigwe Production section of each uigwe. Below is an overview of where the Uigwe Administrative Offices for each of the fourteen uigwe contained in this study were located.

Based on the above information, it is difficult to assert that there was a designated location for the establishment of the Uigwe Administrative Office based on the type of event. For instance, although the funeral of King Jeongjo (正祖, r. 1776–1800) and the construction of his tomb were conducted simultaneously, the Uigwe Administrative Offices for each event were established separately at the Office of Interpreters and the Ministry of Personnel. Likewise, in the case of Empress Myeongseong’s funerals which were conducted alongside the establishment of the royal coffin hall and the spirit hall for the empress, the offices were also set up in two separate locations, namely the Office of the Inner Palace Stables and the Office of Palace Construction and Repair. In sum, the Uigwe Administrative Office was established in a location convenient to the circumstances at the time. Prior to the founding of the Korean Empire (大韓帝國, 1897–1910), this location was often the Ministry of Personnel, whereas afterward this changed to the Office of Palace Construction and Repair.

For the production of the printed type uigwe, however, the Uigwe Administrative Offices were often established at the Type Foundry (鑄字所, Jujaso). For instance, the office for the Uigwe for the Royal Procession to Hwaseong Fortress was initially established at the former site of the Office of Royal Decrees but later moved to the Type Foundry. In addition, as for the Uigwe for Constructing Hwaseong Fortress (華城城役儀軌, Hwaseong seongyeog uigwe), although the Uigwe Administrative Office was established at Hwaseong Magistracy (華城府, Hwaseongbu), the Type Foundry supervised the printing of the uigwe since it was the office in charge of printing and publishing, which made it a convenient location for the production of the printed editions.

There were many instances where the directorate in charge of an event and the Uigwe Administrative Office for that event were established in the same location. Among the fourteen uigwe reviewed in this paper, there are six cases—(4), (5), (6), (9), (12), and (13)—in which the directorate and the office shared the same location. Since the uigwe documented the works of the directorate, and the Uigwe Administrative Office was in charge of the documentation, it is presumed that there were many advantages in having the directorate and the office established in the same place.

Officials Belonging to the Uigwe Administrative Office

The regulations regarding the management of officials in the Uigwe Administrative Office, as outlined in the Itemized Record of Uigwe Production section, did not change significantly over time. They include clauses for the minister-level officials (堂上, dangsang), supervising officials (都廳, docheong) and staff officials (郎廳, nangcheong), and stipulate that a number of officials from the directorate in charge of the event were to remain in the Uigwe Administrative Office and be assigned with the production of the uigwe. In addition, a separate list of names was to be created for newly appointed officials. While compiling the uigwe, officials of the Uigwe Administrative Office were exempted from having to attend official assemblies or sacrificial rites, although they were still required to attend to their original duties. Furthermore, the Uigwe Administrative Office employed the same official seals as those used in the directorate for the documents it produced.

The Office for the Arrangement of the Royal Processions (整理所, Jeongniso), which was in charge of managing the procession of King Jeongjo to Hwaseong Fortress in 1795, was staffed by various officials, including the prime minister (摠理大臣, chongnidaesin), commissioners of the Office for the Arrangement of the Royal Processions (整理使, jeongnisa), which consisted of minister-level officials, staff officials, and officials for cash management (監官, gamgwan), as well as military officers, clerks, a calligrapher (書寫, seosa), warehouse keepers, runners, flag bearers, document keepers, and errand soldiers among others (Fig. 2). Worth nothing is that in addition to Chae Jegong (蔡濟恭, 1720–1799), the prime minister who continued to supervise the Office for the Arrangement of the Royal Processions and the Uigwe Administrative Office, many other officials also continued to serve in both offices including four commissioners from the Office for the Arrangement of the Royal Processions (out of 6 in total), nine military officers (out of 11 in total), thirteen clerks (out of 16 in total), one calligrapher, one warehouse keeper (out of 3 in total), one runner (out of 5 in total), and six flag bearers (out of 68 in total). This shows that many of the officials from the Office for the Arrangement of the Royal Processions who were assigned to the procession of King Jeongjo served in the Uigwe Administrative Office as well.

Fig. 2. List of officials belonging to the Office for the Arrangement of the Royal Processions from the Uigwe for the Royal Processions to Hwaseong Fortress. Joseon, 1797. 45.8 × 32.7 cm. Jangseogak of the Academy of Korean Studies.

Also included in the Itemized Record of Uigwe Production section are regulations for low-level officials of the Uigwe Administrative Office. Falling into this category were officials who personally prepared documents included in the uigwe and those who managed required materials or ran errands. The former were typically remunerated by the Ministry of Taxation or the Ministry of War, to which they belonged, while the latter were selected from their original offices and assigned to the Uigwe Administrative Office. Table 1 below summarizes the number of low-level officials in the Uigwe Administrative Office.

As shown in Table 1, one or two official transcribers (寫字官, sajagwan) in charge of transcribing characters and one official painter (畫員, hwawon) were assigned to the production of the uigwe for royal perusal, while it was common for one or two official calligraphers to be assigned to the production of uigwe intended for wider distribution. In addition, one warehouse keeper, one to four runners, two to four security soldiers, and one female slave for preparing meals were assigned to the office. After the founding of the Korean Empire, the position of clerk was removed while positions for three to six assistant clerks and one to two errand soldiers were created.

Items Required for the Production of Uigwe

Offices Responsible for the Provision of Items Needed

The Itemized Record of Uigwe Production section, containing a very brief list of the materials needed to produce the uigwe, stipulates that paper, writing brushes, ink, and other miscellaneous items used in the Uigwe Administrative Office were to be procured by the relevant offices. This raises the question: which offices does the term “relevant offices” refer to?

Included in the Uigwe for Compiling the Annals of King Jeongjong are dated official documents requesting for the procurement of certain items to the Uigwe Administrative Office between 1805 and 1806. These include the recipients of each document, which correspond to the government offices responsible for providing the necessary items to the Uigwe Administrative Office. The documents suggest that the Storehouse of Paper Supplies (長興庫, Jangheunggo) and the Bureau of Currency and Slave Taxation (司贍寺, Saseomsi) were responsible for the provision of paper, the Directorate of Palace Buildings (繕工監, Seongonggam) was responsible for the provision of writing brushes, and the Ministry of Taxation, along with the Ministry of Works and the Storehouse of Seasoning and Spices (義盈庫, Uiyeonggo) were in charge of providing ink. Other miscellaneous items were to be procured from other various offices. Just as many offices participated in holding state events, many offices also participated in the production of the uigwe.

On the other hand, there were cases in which the Uigwe Administrative Office directly purchased the items it needed, which was due to the fact that not all items could be obtained from the various government offices. Following the establishment of the Korean Empire, there was a notable increase in the number of instances where the Uigwe Administrative Office directly purchased the items it needed. This trend appears to be related to the division of the imperial court into the Ministry of the Imperial Household (宮內府, Gungnaebu) and the State Council (議政府, Uijeongbu), along with the full-scale introduction of the modern budget system after the Gobo Reform.

Items Required for the Operation of the Uigwe Administrative Office

When the Uigwe Administrative Office was established, the first thing carried out was the provision of such items as lamp oil, charcoal for brazier, and firewood for underfloor heating, which were needed for officials to light and heat the office, with earthen braziers being additionally provided in some cases. The Uigwe for the Royal Wedding of King Yeongjo and Queen Jeongsun documents that a quarter dan of firewood, three seok of lamp oil, and one seung of charcoal were provided daily for staff officials. On the other hand, the Uigwe for the Royal Wedding of King Sunjo and Queen Sunwon documents that 143 dan of firewood, along with six seok, two seung, and one hop of lamp oil, were provided for the officials, indicating the total amount provided unlike the former uigwe.

Paper, writing brushes, and ink were provided for the minister-level officials, staff officials, clerks, and calligraphers of the Uigwe Administrative Office. A writing brush made of weasel-tail hair and ink of superior quality were provided for each of them, along with the white thick paper (厚白紙, hubaekji) used to transcribe the draft of the uigwe or the white scrap paper (白休紙, baekhyuji) used for official documents.

The Uigwe Administrative Office was also provided with the tools required to carry out the entire production process of the uigwe, from the transcription all the way to the bookbinding stage. The tools, which were to be returned to the offices to which they originally belonged, were handled separately from the items needed for the production of the uigwe. Among the tools to be returned later were dishes, wide bowls, small bowls, and pestles for official painters to use when drawing the illustrations of the royal procession (班次圖, banchado) or explanatory illustrations of the ritual items (圖說, doseol). There were also tools such as dusters to renew or print book covers and worn oiled paper to make the covers of the uigwe for wider distribution, as well as tools including handbarrows, thin planks of jajak wood, Yeonil whetstones, wide cutting boards, sticks, and thin cords for bookbinding artisans to cut paper and bind books (Cho Gye-young 2006, 34–36). These tools, necessary for the production of books, were borrowed from each respective office, and returned after the uigwe was completed.

Materials Required to Produce the Uigwe

A variety of materials were needed to make the uigwe book itself. In terms of the kinds of paper used, there was paper of high quality (草注紙, chojuji), paper for general use (楮注紙, jeojuji), jade-colored paper, colored paper, and oiled paper. The chojuji paper was used for the covers of the uigwe for royal perusal, while the jeojuji paper was used for the covers of the uigwe meant for wider distribution. The jade-colored paper, colored paper, and oiled paper were also used in the making of the covers.

Writing brushes and ink were needed to transcribe texts or draw the banchado and doseol illustrations. When it came to the transcription of texts, writing brushes made of weasel-tail hair and ink of superior quality were used for both the uigwe intended for royal perusal and those for wider distribution. However, when it came to the ruled lines on the pages, there was a difference in how they were drawn depending on the type of book. For the uigwe for royal perusal, official painters drew the lines by hand in vermilion pigment using paint brushes, while the lines for the uigwe for wider distribution were printed using such items as ink of average quality, raw honey, horsehair, and dusters. Planks of jajak wood, which were produced in advance with the participation of woodworking artisans (小木匠, somokjang), engraving artisans (雕却匠, jogakjang), and engravers (刻手, gaksu), were also used to make the lines.

In order to produce the banchado or doseol illustrations, the painters needed pigments of various colors and glue. The pigments could be classified into six color groups: black, white, red, green, blue, and yellow (Seoul Museum of History 2009, 12–48; Jeong Jongmi 2001). According to the existing research, the pigments used in the banchado illustrations included in the uigwe did not change significantly depending on the period, and the types of colors used were relatively few (Shin Hyeonok 2007, 12–17). Below are details on the types of pigments used.

Once the transcription of the uigwe was completed, the process of bookbinding could begin. The uigwe for royal perusal and the version intended for wider distribution required the use of different materials. In the case of the former, the book cover was crafted from plain weave silk (輕光紬, gyeonggwangju) of green, white, and red color, along with cloth for affixing the title onto the cover, while only red hemp cloth (紅正布, hongjeongpo) was used for the cover of the latter, although the fabrics used for both types of book covers were equally two cheok and two chon in size. In addition, jade-colored paper was affixed to the back of the uigwe designed for royal perusal, while white scrap paper adorned the back of the version intended for wider distribution. The final step of the bookbinding process consisted of binding the books. Brass binding plates etched with decorative motifs (豆錫召伊邊鐵, duseokjoibyeoncheol), chrysanthemum headed rivets (菊花童朴鐵, gukwadongbakcheol), and rings (圓環, wonhwan) were used in the binding of the uigwe for royal perusal, while steel binding plates, metal rivets, and rings were used for the uigwe intended for wider distribution. Once completed, uigwe destined for the king’s perusal were placed in a red wooden chest (紅假函, honggaham) and wrapped with a single-layered red silk cloth (紅紬四幅單袱, hongjusapokdanbok) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Oegyujanggak Uigwe intended for royal perusal (left) and uigwe intended for wider distribution from the Taebaeksan History Archive (right). Uigwe for Bestowing an Honorary Title to Queen Jangryeol. Joseon, 1686. (For Royal Perusal) 46.2 × 35.0 cm. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Loan to National Museum of Korea. Uigwe for Bestowing an Honorary Title to Queen Jangryeol. Joseon, 1686. (For Distribution) 44.3 × 33.6 cm. Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, Seoul National University.

After the nineteenth century, changes began to appear in the bookbinding process. Notably, there were instances where plain weave silk, which had been previously used for both the cover and the cloth affixing the title, was replaced by a higher-quality silk (禾花紬, hwahwaju), while the title was written on white twill silk and attached to the book cover. Additionally, instead of merely listing the names of items used to bind the uigwe intended for royal perusal such as the brass binding plate adorned with decorations and the chrysanthemum-headed rivet, the materials used to make those items were included as well, which is evidenced by changes in the materials used in the production of binding plates. For instance, the binding plates of the Uigwe for the Funeral of King Jeongjo were initially made of materials such as brass, zinc, borax, and Arthraxon hispidus (三甫, sampo), while refined copper and soldered silver were later added to make the binding plates for subsequent uigwe editions.

Following the founding of the Korean Empire in 1897, a noticeable change occurred in the colors used for the book cover and cloth for affixing the title to the cover of the uigwe designed for royal perusal. The cover, which had been produced only in green, began to be produced in different colors including yellow (for the uigwe distributed to Gyujanggak), red (for the uigwe distributed to the Tutorial Office for the Crown Prince, the Residence of Prince Imperial Ui, and the Residence of Prince Imperial Yeong), and green (for the residence of Imperial Consort Sunheon). As for the cloth used to affix the title on the cover, yellow and green were added to the original color combination of white and red. The wooden chest and wrapping cloth underwent a diversification of colors as well. The chest, initially red, was also produced in yellow, and a cloth made of yellow silk, yellow cotton, and white cotton was added to the red wrapping cloth. Worth nothing is that the color yellow was incorporated into the cover, cloth for affixing the title to the cover, chest, and wrapping cloth of the uigwe, which is attributable to the fact that the uigwe were produced for the review of Emperor Gojong (高宗, r. 1863–1907), whose status had been elevated from king to emperor.

Number of Uigwe Copies Produced and Where They Were Distributed

Once the Uigwe Administrative Office completed the production of uigwe, they were in turn distributed to various offices. During the Joseon Dynasty, only one copy of the uigwe for royal perusal was produced and distributed to Gyujanggak. However, after the establishment of the Korean Empire, it became customary to produce two copies of the uigwe for imperial perusal, which were entrusted to Gyujanggak and the Tutorial Office for the Crown Prince (侍講院, Sigangwon). There were also instances where three or four copies of the uigwe intended for imperial perusal were produced. For example, in the case of the Uigwe for the Investiture of Imperial Consort Sunheon, three copies for imperial perusal were produced and additionally distributed to the residence of the imperial consort for her review, and in the case of the Uigwe for the Investitures of Prince Imperial Ui and Prince Imperial Yeong, four copies were produced which included copies destined for each of the two imperial princes. There were even instances where no copy for royal perusal was produced at all. In the case of the Uigwe for Compiling the Annals of King Jeongjong, which documents the compilation of the Annals, although a total of five copies of the uigwe were produced and distributed to the Office of State Records (春秋館, Chunchugwan) and the four History Archives (the Jeongjoksan History Archive, the Taebaeksan History Archive, the Odaesan History Archive, and the Jeoksangsan History Archive), no copy was produced for the king’s review (Figs. 4 and 5).

Fig. 4. Number of uigwe copies produced for the Uigwe for the Funeral of Queen Jangryeol (I). Joseon, 1689. 48.6 × 38.0 cm. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Loan to National Museum of Korea

Fig. 5. The Restored Odaesan History Archive, Pyeongchang.

The uigwe intended for wider distribution were to be sent out to the State Council, the Ministry of Rites, the Office of State Records, and the four History Archives. The former two entities were responsible for discussing and holding state rites, while the latter served as repositories for housing state records. However, not all the uigwe copies intended for distribution were handed out to every location stated above. In some cases, the copies were distributed only to the offices directly involved in the event documented in the uigwe.

Table 2 below summarizes the number of uigwe copies produced along with the locations where they were distributed. The only instance in which copies were distributed to the Office of State Records and all four History Archives is for the Uigwe for Compiling the Annals of King Jeongjong. Otherwise, the distribution of copies to all four History Archives only happened in five instances—(6), (7), (8), (12), and (13). After the founding of the Korean Empire, the Office of Rites (掌禮院, Jangnyewon), Hwangudan Altar, and the Imperial Secretariat (秘書院, Biseowon) came to replace the Ministry of Rites. Table 2 below shows that four to ten transcribed copies of the uigwe were produced, including those for royal perusal and those for wider distribution combined.

The number of copies and distribution locations of uigwe increased for the printed type in comparison with the transcribed versions. Among them, the most widely distributed was the Uigwe for the Royal Procession to Hwaseong Fortress, printed in the type called jeongrija (整理字). In addition to the forty-two copies distributed to the members of the royal family alone, including one copy for Lady Hyegyeong, the central figure of the event, many copies were distributed to various other locations, including copies distributed to each one of the twenty-six government offices and thirty-one participants at the event. In sum, the total number of distributed copies of the uigwe amounted to 101.

Following the production of the Uigwe for the Royal Procession to Hwaseong Fortress, most uigwe dealing with royal events were printed in type and distributed. In the case of the Uigwe for the Court Banquet Held in Honor of Queen Sunwon (憲宗戊申進饌儀軌, Heonjong musin jinchan uigwe), produced in 1848 (the 14th year of King Heonjong’s reign), the Itemized Record of Uigwe Production section stipulated that six copies were to be printed and distributed to Gyujanggak, the Office of State Records, the Ministry of Rites, the Taebaeksan History Archive, the Odaesan History Archive, and the Jeoksangsan History Archive respectively. However, the total number of distributed copies actually exceeded fifty, including one for Queen Sunwon and twenty-five to various other locations within the palace, one to the West Storage (西庫, Seogo) [of Gyujanggak], Gyujanggak, the four History Archives, and the Ministry of Rites respectively, one to each of the six minister-level officials of the Office of Superintendency of Court Banquets, as well as twelve to staff officials (Kim Jongsu 2003). In the case of the Uigwe for the Court Banquet Celebrating the 50th Birthday of Emperor Gojong (高宗辛丑進宴儀軌, Gojong sinchuk jinyeon uigwe), produced in 1901 (the 5th year of Gwangmu), although the Itemized Record of Uigwe Production section stipulated the printing of only eight copies which were to be distributed to Gyujanggak, the Tutorial Office for the Crown Prince, the Imperial Secretariat, the Office of Rites, and the four History Archives, the emperor ordered the additional production and distribution of thirty-nine copies after the uigwe’s production. This included one for his residence, twenty-seven for various locations within the palace, three for the West Storage, as well as one for Gyujanggak, the Tutorial Office for the Crown Prince, the Imperial Secretariat, the Office of Rites, and the four History Archives respectively.

However, not all the printed type uigwe were produced in dozens of copies. For instance, in the case of the Uigwe for the Court Banquet Held in Honor of King Sunjo and Queen Sunwon, seventeen printed copies were produced and distributed to various locations such as the king’s palace, the queen’s residence, Gyujanggak, the Ministry of Rites, and the West Storage, including three separate copies translated into Hangeul to be distributed to a number of locations including the queen’s and the crown prince’s residences, amounting to a total of twenty copies. Generally speaking, the printed type uigwe were produced in greater numbers than the transcribed uigwe. However, as in the case of Uigwe for the Royal Procession to Hwaseong Fortress, copies were produced in larger numbers for wider distribution according to the will of King Jeongjo.

Concluding Remarks

This paper has examined the uigwe production process based on the Itemized Record of Uigwe Production section as it appears in fourteen separate uigwe. During the Joseon era, the completion of an important state or royal event would be followed by the establishment of a Uigwe Administrative Office where officials were appointed and tasked with overseeing the production of the uigwe, and to which necessary items were provided to facilitate the smooth execution of the uigwe’s production.

Various government offices shared in the responsibility of providing items required for the production of the uigwe. This included everyday necessities for the Uigwe Administrative Office such as firewood for underfloor heating, lamp oil, charcoal for brazier, paper, writing brushes, and ink, as well as tools borrowed from other offices and meant to be returned upon the completion of the production process. Items needed for the production of the uigwe were very diverse, ranging from basic items used for writing and drawing such as paper, brushes, ink and pigments, to the materials required for the printing of ruled lines and bookbinding.

Upon the establishment of the Korean Empire in 1897, a significant shift took place in the production process of the uigwe. Notably, the Uigwe Administrative Office started directly purchasing the items it needed for production. The uigwe designed for imperial perusal also underwent a change in appearance and began being produced in three versions due to the elevation of the country’s status from kingdom to empire. This development was only natural given the uigwe’s symbolic importance, serving as both a manifestation of authority and a record of crucial state events.

In the preface, the author highlighted the progress made in uigwe research and the subsequent need for a closer examination into the production process of the uigwe. Given the limitations of this paper, however, the author recognizes the need for further research to be conducted, particularly in identifying the names and uses of numerous items appearing in the uigwe, which will be crucial for gaining a precise understanding of the uigwe’s production process.

The final article of the Itemized Record of Uigwe Production section states, “Items deemed insufficient are to be supplemented in the future.” Likewise, the author believes that aspects not adequately covered in this paper should be further supplemented in the future and hopes for the cooperation of researchers interested in the uigwe in this regard.