The Journal of Korean Art and Archaeology

Introduction

The study of Goryeo celadon advanced significantly following Nomori Ken’s (野守健) discovery of the Yucheon-ri kiln site in Buan-gun in 1929. Kilns that had produced Goryeo celadon were confirmed in Guwan-dong, Daejeon, and many other parts of the country; Goryeo celadon artifacts were recovered from the wreckage of a ship that had sunk off the west coast; and diverse Goryeo celadon vessels and shards were excavated from places of end-use, such as royal palaces, temples, and tombs. Researchers have hence expanded their interests beyond the Gangjin official kilns, and as a result, the Buan area, a major center of Goryeo ceramics production, has been recognized as a crucial research site.

This article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the ceramics produced at Yucheon-ri and of the operation of the kilns, particularly in the context of their relation to Gangjin ceramics. Moreover, a number of other celadon kilns that, like Yucheon-ri, did not produce vessels with a ‘moon-halo’ footring (haemurigup), a representative feature of the early Goryeo Dynasty, will also be investigated, notwithstanding their different periods and systems of operation. The vessels produced at these mid-Goryeo kilns are compared against those of Yucheon-ri in terms of vessel type, form, decorative motifs, and relative chronology, in order to clarify when the kilns operated and why they closed.

Vessel Forms from Yucheon-ri Kiln Site

Based on a surface survey and examination of vessels excavated from the upper stratum at Yucheon-ri, the celadons found there can be clearly divided into two groups, according to differences in quality. It is evident that several Yucheon-ri kilns (e.g., number 12 and 13) were devoted to the production of high-quality wares. In this article, I will use the terms “ordinary celadon” and “high-quality celadon” to classify the vessels by an analysis of decorative motifs, type of foot, and firing methods. The ordinary celadon from these kilns is analyzed and compared to vessels produced at other regional kilns, while the high-quality celadon is compared to the finds excavated at Yongun-ri kiln 10 in Gangjin.

According to the results of the excavation of Yongun-ri kiln 10 in Gangjin, the stratigraphy can be divided into layer I (earlier) and layer II (later). No vessels with a moon-halo footring were found in layer II. The celadons that were found in this kiln were further subdivided into three groups according to the type of firing supports used: Group A refers to vessels fired on beige-colored refractory clay supports; Group B to vessels fired on supports made of refractory clay mixed with sand; and Group C to vessels fired on silica spurs. Since no Group A vessels were produced at the Yucheon-ri kilns, the excavation of Yongun-ri kiln 10 provides important clues for understanding the situation at Yucheon-ri.

A. Ordinary Celadon

A significant amount of ordinary celadon was produced at all 33 confirmed kilns at Yucheon-ri. Analysis shows that the Yucheon-ri vessels are quite similar to vessels excavated from other kilns (e.g., the nearby Jinseo-ri kilns, and kilns in Sinyeong-ri in Gongju, Guwan-dong in Daejeon, Saeng-ri in Eumseong, and Bojeong-ri in Yongin) in terms of vessel type, form, decorative motifs, type of foot, and method of firing, making it rather difficult to distinguish them from each other (Table I). Notably, celadon vessels with a moon-halo footring and dishes with a flanged rim, features which are considered representative markers for the nascent stage of celadon production, were not made at these kilns. Analysis also showed that the Yucheon-ri ordinary celadon is similar in date to Group B celadon (fired on supports of refractory clay mixed with sand) from layer II at Yongun-ri.

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Table 1. Major Vessel Types at Each Kiln Site

B. High-quality Celadon

High-quality celadon was produced at kiln 12 and a number of other kilns at Yucheon-ri. In this case also, the Yucheon-ri wares are similar in vessel type and form with ordinary celadon wares and celadon produced at other mid-Goryeo kilns, but the quality of the clay paste and glaze is much finer than those of ordinary celadon. The most commonly produced vessel types (i.e., rice bowls [bal] (Table II), small bowls [wan] (Table III), and shallow dishes [jeopsi] (Table IV)) from Yucheon-ri were compared to those found in layer II of kiln 10 at Yongun-ri, to examine the general characteristics of high-quality celadon from Yucheon-ri and their comparative time of production. Comparison shows that the majority of Yucheon-ri celadon corresponds to Groups B and C at Yongun-ri (kiln 10, layer II). In terms of type of foot and firing method, ordinary celadon rice bowls (Fig. 1) exhibit a slanted foot and evidence of firing on refractory clay or supports of refractory clay mixed with sand. In contrast, high-quality celadon rice bowls (Fig. 2), have a straight foot and smoothly rounded foot rim, with the underside of the foot shallowly recessed, and in most cases were fired on silica spurs, like the Group C vessels from Yongun-ri (kiln 10, layer II). These characteristics are commonly found on small bowls and shallow dishes, as well as cups (jan). These changes indicate a shift in production method to achieve greater efficiency and to make clean, refined celadon wares.

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Table II. Comparison of bal from Yongun-ri in Gangjin and Yucheon-ri in Buan

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Table III. Comparison of wan from Yongun-ri in Gangjin and Yucheon-ri in Buan

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Table IV. Comparison of jeopsi from Yongun-ri in Gangjin and Yucheon-ri in Buan

Fig. 1. Bowl excavated from Yucheon-ri kiln 10. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 2. Bowl excavated from Yucheon-ri kiln 12. (National Museum of Korea).

C. Celadon Inscribed with the Character Seong (成)

In the area around Sadang-ri kiln 7 in Gangjin, along with high-quality celadon vessels inscribed with the word eogeon (御件, vessels for court use), a set of celadon vessels inscribed with the character seong (成) was discovered (Figs. 3-6). The reason for and meaning of this inscription are still not known, but as the inscribed vessels were all produced at the same kiln, they were presumably produced around the same time. Interestingly, the collection of vessel types in this set is very different from that of early Goryeo celadon vessels found alongside vessels with a moon-halo footring.

Fig. 3. Celadon bowl with seong (成) inscription and raised lotus petal design, excavated from Sadang-ri kiln 7 in Gangjin. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 4. Celadon cup with seong (成) inscription and carved lotus petal design, excavated from Sadang-ri kiln 7 in Gangjin. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 5. Celadon bowl with seong (成) inscription and incised parrot design, excavated from Sadang-ri kiln 7 in Gangjin. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 6. Foliated celadon dish with seong (成) inscription and molded palmette design, excavated from Sadang-ri kiln 7 in Gangjin. (National Museum of Korea).

As for the relative chronology of the celadon production sites, the upper limit date is probably related to the opening of regional kilns, including the Yucheon-ri kilns. Looking at the celadon end-use sites, most of the vessels in this group have been excavated from the sites of Hyeeumwon (惠蔭院, a Goryeo inn) and the royal tombs of Jireung and Seongneung; the vessels excavated from these sites date from no later than the first half of the 13^th century. In addition, vessels excavated from the Seonwonsa Temple site date from no earlier than 1240. These findings show that production continued at least until the first half of the 13^th century.

Celadon vessels inscribed with the character seong (成) are known to have been produced in around 100 different kilns scattered across a wide area, including Yongun-ri, Gyeyul-ri, and Sadang-ri in Gangjin; some 70 other confirmed kilns in Yucheon-ri, Jinseo-ri, and other places in Buan-gun; as well as a number of small-scale regional kilns. In terms of the chronological range of the seong-inscribed celadon group, the many kilns in the Gangjin and Buan areas (excluding the small regional kilns) would likely have been operating around the same time, or perhaps one or two generations apart at the most.

It is known that Yongun-ri kiln 10 was operated by 46 potters, but given that the entire population of Goryeo in the 12^th and 13^th centuries (when the seong-inscribed celadon vessels were produced) was estimated to be around 2.1 million, the kiln in Daeguso, a pottery village in Gangjin, probably had fewer potters (Koo Illhoe 2008, 43-65). Ultimately, the numerous kilns in Gangjin and Buan that produced seong-inscribed celadon almost certainly did not all operate at the same time. Evidence suggests that a small group of potters moved around from one kiln to another, and this is believed to account for the relatively wide chronology of almost 150 years.

Comparative Analysis of Yucheon-ri Wares and Chronological Material

A. Excavated Artifacts

1. Celadon Tiles: As evidenced by examples found at Manwoldae, the Goryeo royal palace site in Gaeseong, celadon tiles were not for the use of the common people. In line with the record about Yangijeong (養怡亭, Pavilion for Nourishing Enjoyment, next to the royal palace) found in Goryeosa (高麗史, History of Goryeo), it is accepted that production of celadon tiles was particularly active around 1157 (the 11^th year of the reign of King Uijong).

Yucheon-ri has also yielded an array of architectural materials made from high-quality celadon, including roof tiles, thin flat tiles, and bricks. The celadon roof tile seen in Fig. 7 is barely distinguishable from celadon tiles excavated from kiln sites such as Sadang-ri in Gangjin, with matching size, glaze, and peony scroll design.1

Fig. 7. Celadon tile shards, excavated from Yucheon-ri kiln 12 in Buan. (National Museum of Korea).

2. CELADONS WITH REVERSE-INLAY DECORATION: One of the distinguishing features of Goryeo celadon is the inlay technique, which reached its pinnacle in the 12^th century. One example of a ceramic vessel from the heyday of the inlay technique is the celadon bowl with inlaid bosanghwa scroll design in reverseinlay (with the background, rather than the design, carved away and filled with white) (Fig. 8) said to have been found in the tomb of Mun Gongyu (文公裕), who died in 1159 (the 13^th year of the reign of King Uijong).

Fig. 8. Celadon bowl with inlaid bosanghwa scroll design, presumed to have been excavated from the tomb of Mun Gongyu. (National Museum of Korea).

Bowls with inlaid bosanghwa scroll design were also made in both the Yucheon-ri kilns (Fig. 9) and Gangjin kilns, and they have drawn attention for their remarkable similarities. Indeed, the form and the interior decoration are almost identical, although the central lotus petal design inside the bowl is slightly different. Still, the principal reverse-inlay bosanghwa (literally “precious visage flower”) scroll design indicates a close connection between the kilns of Buan and Gangjin.

Fig. 9. Celadon bowl with inlaid bosanghwa scroll design, excavated from Yucheon-ri kiln 12. (National Museum of Korea).

3. CELADONS FROM JIREUNG: Vessels excavated from Jireung, the tomb of King Myeongjong, have provided crucial chronological data for dating Goryeo celadon (Fig. 10). The royal tomb was constructed in 1202 (the 5^th year of the reign of King Sinjong), and the funerary items found inside were of the highest quality produced at the time. As the period in question was not marked by any particular political and social changes, the vessels are dated to the early 13^th century, when the tomb was constructed. Comparison between the vessels excavated from Jireung and those from the Buan and Gangjin kilns reveals that they are so similar that they are difficult to distinguish from one another (Figs. 11 and 12).

Fig. 10. Set of celadon vessels from Jireung. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 11. Flat-bottomed celadon dish with molded palmette design, excavated from Jireung. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 12. Flat-bottomed celadon dish with molded palmette design, excavated from Yucheon-ri. (National Museum of Korea).

4. CELADONS FROM SEONGNEUNG AND GOLLEUNG: A diverse array of celadon vessels were found inside two contemporaneous Goryeo tombs: Seongneung, the tomb of King Huijong, which was constructed in 1237 (the 24^th year of the reign of King Gojong) (National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage 2003, 226-243), and Golleung, the tomb of Queen Wondeok, consort of King Gangjong, which was constructed in 1239. Vessels recovered from Seongneung include a circular celadon dish with slip-painted design (Fig.13); those from Golleung include a tripod celadon censer with incised cloud design, the lid of a celadon maebyeong with incised lotus design, and a celadon foliated dish (Fig. 15).

Fig. 13. Shards excavated from Seongneung, the tomb of King Huijong: slip-painted dish, center row, second from left. (National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage).

These two tombs also yielded a celadon bowl with raised lotus design and a celadon dish with pressed palmette design that closely resemble vessels made in Yucheon-ri. In addition, there are remarkable similarities between the circular celadon dish with painted design found in Seongneung (seen in Fig.13) and a circular celadon dish with clay painted design from Yucheon-ri (Fig. 14), as well as between the tripod celadon censer with incised cloud design from Golleung and a tripod white porcelain censer with incised cloud design from Yucheon-ri (Fig. 16).

Fig. 14. Circular celadon dish with slip-painted design, excavated from Yucheon-ri. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 15. Set of vessels excavated from Golleung. (National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage).

Fig. 16. Fragment of tripod celadon censer with incised cloud design, excavated from Yucheon-ri. (National Museum of Korea).

5. CELADON INSCRIBED WITH THE CHARACTERS JEONGNEUNG (正陵): It is known that from 1365 until 1374 the tomb of Queen Jangmok, consort of King Gongmin, was called Jeongneung, so celadon vessels inscribed with Jeongneung, such as the celadon bowl with inlaid lotus scroll design and Jeongneung inscription (Fig. 17), are important benchmarks for late Goryeo chronology. Hitherto, celadon wares with this inscription are believed to have been made only in the Gangjin region. Ten such vessels have survived, including those excavated from the site of Seonwonsa Temple in Ganghwado Island.

Fig. 17. Celadon bowl with inlaid lotus scroll design and Jeongneung inscription. (National Museum of Korea).

Notably, however, the shards of a celadon bowl with a very similar inlaid lotus scroll design (Fig. 18) were excavated in 1966 from Yucheon-ri by the National Museum of Korea. Although the shards indicate that the bowl had a wide, gently curved interior, unlike the steeper interior of the Jeongneung-inscribed bowl, the design on the inside is very similar, albeit more roughly executed. These shards indicate that the kilns at Yucheon-ri and Gangjin must have been closely connected at the time the Jeongneung-inscribed wares were produced in Gangjin.

Fig. 18. Celadon bowl with inlaid lotus scroll design, excavated from Yucheon-ri. (National Museum of Korea).

B. Celadons Inscribed with Cyclical Characters

It was once believed that celadon wares inscribed with cyclical characters (ganji) indicating the year were only produced in Gangjin. But the 1966 excavations at kiln 12 at Yucheon-ri uncovered a shard of a celadon bowl inscribed with the cyclical characters im’o (壬午, probably corresponding to 1342 rather than 1282 or 1402), inlaid in white at the bottom of the interior (Fig. 19). Discovered along with this shard were shards from a number of other celadon vessels, including a celadon flanged dish with molded twin-fish design (Fig. 20); celadon flanged dish with pressed lobe design (Fig. 21); and celadon stem-cup (Fig. 22), all of which are representative 14^th-century materials that serve as markers for relative chronology. These shards from Yucheon-ri also resembled celadon vessels made in Gangjin in terms of type, form, and decorative motifs.

Fig. 19. Shards of a celadon bowl inscribed with the cyclical year name im’o (壬午) in white inlay, excavated from Yucheon-ri. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 20. Celadon flanged dish with molded twin-fish design, excavated from Yucheon-ri. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 21. Celadon flanged dish with molded lobed design, excavated from Yucheon-ri. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 22. Celadon stem-cup, excavated from Yucheon-ri. (National Museum of Korea).

Prior to the production of celadon inscribed with ganji, rice bowls and small bowls made in Yucheon-ri were often decorated with reverse inlay scroll designs, featuring a large inlaid surface. But once the ganji inscriptions began to appear on celadon, linear inlaid scroll designs became more common, along with three exterior bands decorated with an inlaid lotus leaf pattern. These stylistic changes came about in Yucheon-ri wares around the time when the ganji-inscribed celadon began to be produced in Gangjin, as evidenced by the shard inscribed with im’o (壬午) and the celadon bowl with inlaid cranes-and-clouds design (Fig. 23).

Fig. 23. Celadon bowl with inlaid cranes-and-clouds design, excavated from Yucheon-ri. (National Museum of Korea).

Chronology and Nature of Yucheon-ri Kilns

A. Period of Operation

1. OPENING OF THE YUCHEON-RI KILNS: Comparative analysis of Yucheon-ri ceramics excavated from both kiln sites and historical sites reveal that representative vessel types of the early Goryeo period (e.g., bowls with a moon-halo footring, dishes with flanged rims, foliated dishes) were not produced at Yucheon-ri. In addition, the relative chronology of new celadon vessel types produced when the Yucheon-ri kilns opened matches that of vessels belonging to Groups B and C from Yongun-ri (kiln 10, layer II) in Gangjin. Also, common decorative motifs and techniques include incised parrot designs and twin-butterfly designs, as found in Yuezhou wares, and molded bosanghwa scroll designs like those found in Yaozhou wares from China. In addition to the extensive use of molded designs, the inlay technique was also used, resulting in greater diversity than in the early Goryeo period. It has also been confirmed that the aforementioned vessel types and forms match those made at Jinseo-ri and other regional kilns, as well as those bearing the seong (成) inscription found at the Sadang-ri kilns in Gangjin. The above results serve as the basis for determining when the Yucheon-ri kilns began to operate, as is discussed below:

a) Changes in Celadon: In 1071 (the 25^th year of the reign of King Munjong), diplomatic relations resumed between Goryeo and Song China, leading to an increased influx of Chinese ceramic wares. As a result, the vessel types, forms, and decorative motifs of Goryeo celadon underwent some changes under the influence of wares from the Northern Song Dynasty. For example, the melon-shaped bottle and square celadon base found in Jangneung (the tomb of King Injong), and the censer in the shape of a lotus leaf found in Gangjin, all resemble similar wares excavated from the Luzhou kilns in China. This corroborates the records of Xu Jing, a Song Dynasty envoy to Goryeo, who wrote that Goryeo celadon of the first half of the 12^th century bore great similarity to the new wares from Luzhou.2 Notably, both the Liao and Jin dynasties recruited potters from the Yaozhou, Ding, and Cizhou kilns of Northern Song. Hence, Northern Song influence was naturally evident in Liao and Jin ceramic wares, which in turn influenced Goryeo wares as well.

b) Increased Demand for Ceramics: Through active exchange with the Northern Song, Goryeo assimilated some elements of its culture, including the use of ceramic wares in everyday life. Consequently, the use of ceramic vessels in everyday life grew rapidly in Goryeo, as affirmed by the discovery of everyday celadon wares, rather than top quality vessels, in sunken cargo ships, and the increased excavation of celadon from the tombs of ordinary people.

This growing demand for ceramics in Goryeo could not be completely met with imported Chinese wares and the celadons made in Gangjin. Hence, it is believed that the Yucheon-ri kilns in Buan and other regional kilns began production in order to meet the increased demand. Also, in the early 12^th century, the system wherein crafts were produced exclusively by government-designated workshops broke down, thereby enabling private kilns to operate, which also affected the spread of celadon kilns across the country.

c) Establishment of the Yucheon-ri Kilns: As already mentioned, the dissemination of ceramic production technology from Gangjin would have been based on the spread of actual models and forms, resulting in the similarity of celadon wares produced by kilns in other regions, including the ordinary celadon made in Yucheon-ri. Presumably, the production techniques were spread by potters who left the official kilns upon their closure, as can be inferred from a record dating to 1108 (the third year of the reign of King Yejong):3 “Special demand [above and beyond the normal designated supply] for tribute goods from various state workshops producing bronze, iron, ceramics, paper, and ink has become quite excessive, and the craftsmen, unable to endure this hardship, are fleeing. The head of each state workshop, taking the situation into consideration, has to judge whether the special demand for tribute goods is high or low and report accordingly to the king.”

Hence, the itinerant potters who are presumed to have left the Gangjin kilns were very probably the means for the spread of Gangjin’s production techniques. Moreover, it seems likely that some of these potters established the Yucheon-ri kilns around the beginning of the 12^th century.

2. PERIOD OF OPERATION OF THE GANGJIN AND BUAN KILNS: As discussed in Section II, celadon vessels inscribed with the character seong (成) were produced as both ordinary and high-quality celadon in Gangjin and Buan, but only as ordinary celadon at other regional kilns.

However, only the kilns at Gangjin and Buan produced celadon inscribed with cyclical year names, celadon inscribed with the name Jeongneung, and the new celadon vessel types, forms, and decorative motifs that appeared after the Mongol invasions. In other words, none of the smaller regional kilns produced the new vessel types that appeared under the influence of the Yuan Dynasty, indicating that they had been closed down and were thus unable to make the later celadon types. The closure of the kilns can probably be attributed to the Mongol invasions, although it is likely that only some of the kilns sustained direct damage from the invasions. The rest were probably closed as the result of Goryeo’s basic wartime defense policy, wherein the people were evacuated to islands and mountain fortresses. In light of this mass exodus, few of the small regional kilns of the mid-Goryeo period would have been able to remain in operation (Yun Yonghyeok 1991, 183-190).

The Gangjin and Buan kilns, on the other hand, continued to operate during the Mongol invasions. In fact, while much of the country was devastated by the Mongols, the Buan area did not suffer great damage from the invasions. However, records do show that, during this time, Buan was twice attacked by Japanese pirates, first in the seventh month of 1358 (the 7^th year of the reign of King Gongmin) and again in the ninth month of 1376 (the 2^nd year of the reign of King Wu). Given that the pirates burned boats and pillaged the area, Buan must have sustained some considerable damage from these attacks. Anheungchang, one of 12 jochang (漕倉, warehouses for collected tax goods) of Goryeo, was located in Buan, which would have made it an important target for the Japanese. What’s more, the Yucheon-ri kilns were located right along the coast, so it is believed that they must been damaged as well.4 Hence, the flight of potters as the result of the Japanese rampages seems to be one of the viable reasons behind the closure of the Yucheon-ri kilns around the late 14^th century.

3. CLOSURE OF THE YUCHEON-RI KILNS: In the past, it was generally thought that the kilns at Yucheon-ri must have closed before the production of ganji-inscribed celadon began, since no such inscribed celadon had been discovered there. However, as discussed in Section III, that idea had to be re-evaluated following the discovery of a celadon shard inscribed with the cyclical characters im’o (壬午, Fig. 19) at the Yucheon-ri kilns in 1966. In addition, further excavations uncovered celadon inscribed with the name Jeongneung and a range of vessels that can be dated to the 14^th century according to their type, form, and decorative motifs. As such, it is estimated that the Yucheon-ri kilns operated until the late 14^th century.

B. Nature of the Yucheon-ri Kilns

1. OPERATORS: The Yucheon-ri kilns are not mentioned at all in Goryeosa (History of Goryeo) or any other official records, and there is no evidence that they were supervised and operated by the state. Clearly, they were not official government-operated kilns. While the Yucheon-ri kilns were large-scale kilns that operated for a long time and produced wares comparable to those from the official kilns at Gangjin, the lack of any mention in Sinjeung dongguk yeoji seungnam (新增東國輿地勝覽, New Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea), the Geography Section of Sejong sillok (世宗實錄, Annals of the Joseon Dynasty: King Sejong), or other related records indicates that they were definitely not classified as a so (所, an official factory or workshop responsible for the manufacture of crafts for the state).

Then how were the Yucheon-ri kilns operated? The Gangjin kilns constituted an official state-designated so for ceramics production, and they were operated by local officials who managed both the potters affiliated with the kilns and the goods produced there. However, there are currently no existing records to shed light on the nature of the kilns in Buan or any other mid-Goryeo kilns.

Here it is necessary to explain the system of the so, the official craft workshops of the mid-Goryeo period. So, hyang, and bugok were special administrative units of the Goryeo Dynasty, which were established for the manufacture of a particular type of product to be supplied to the state. As mentioned, so were craft workshops specifically dedicated to the production of bronze, silver, gold, iron, ceramics, paper, ink, threads, and textiles.

Although no exact date has been confirmed, it is believed that the official kilns (i.e., so for ceramic production) were formed sometime between the reorganization of Goryeo’s regional administrative system around 940 (the 23^rd year of the reign of King Taejo) and 987 (the 6^th year of the reign of King Seongjong) at the latest, when the system of regional administrative units based on gun and hyeon was virtually finalized. Certainly by 1108 (the 3^rd year of the reign of King Yejong), problems with the so had already been officially revealed, accordingly it has been suggested that the system of so workshops had been fully implemented during the reign of King Hyeonjong (1009-1031).

Of the regions that produced celadons in the mid-Goryeo period, Gangjin is the only one that had the natural conditions, let alone the man-made institutions, to produce celadons in the latter half of the 10^th century, during the time when the Goryeo regional administration system was being amended. Naturally, the other regions would have been organized into ordinary administrative units, rather than special ones. Kilns did not operate in these regions until around the beginning of the 12^th century, when new ceramic production technology was introduced.

It is crucial to note that being specially designated as an official kiln carried no real benefits for a community. In fact, if the reorganization of regional administration resulted in the designation of a so in a given region, the people of that area would have dropped in social status and been subjected to all kinds of legal discrimination. This being the case, the local people naturally objected to being designated as a special administrative unit, and indeed such instances were rare. Ultimately, this means that the regional kilns of the mid-Goryeo period, with the exception of Gangjin, began operation after the so were established. Such kilns would have operated in nearly the same way as the official kilns in Gangjin, only in ordinary administrative areas.

As yet, there is no documentary evidence indicating that the Yucheon-ri kilns were operated as official kilns. However, as discussed above, the vessels produced at Yucheon-ri attest to close relations with the Gangjin kilns, thereby differentiating the Yucheon-ri kilns from other regional kilns.

2. CONNECTION WITH THE GANGJIN KILNS: As indicated by the comparative analysis of high-quality celadon inscribed with the character seong (成), the vessels from Yucheon-ri kiln 12 are almost indistin-guishable from the vessels from Sadang-ri kiln 7 in terms of vessel type, form, decorative motifs, paste, glaze color, and firing supports. Hence, it is believed that, rather than simply copying the Gangjin wares, the Yucheon-ri kilns either worked from the same models as the Gangjin kilns or operated under the instruction of potters from Gangjin. The close affiliation between the Buan and Gangjin kilns, not seen in any other mid-Goryeo kilns, is further supported by the fact that both sites manufactured vessels requiring special production techniques, such as celadon iron-painted bowls with molded design (Figs. 24 and 25), a celadon cup with copper-oxide glaze on the exterior, and high-quality Goryeo white porcelain.

Fig. 24. Celadon iron-painted bowl with molded design, excavated from Yucheon-ri. (National Museum of Korea).

Fig. 25. Celadon iron-painted bowl with molded design, excavated from Dangjeon-ri kiln 1 in Gangjin. (National Museum of Korea).

Conclusion

Ceramics from the Yucheon-ri kilns formed one of the two major streams of Goryeo ceramic wares, along with those made in the Gangjin kilns. The Yucheon-ri kilns began operating at a time when social and cultural circumstances led to an increased number of kilns being established around the country. This can be surmised from the fact that the Yucheon-ri kilns did not produce bowls with a moon-halo footring or dishes with flanged rims, both of which are representative vessel types of the first half of the Goryeo period, as well as similarities between the major vessel types produced at Yucheon-ri and the celadon inscribed with the character seong (成) excavated from Sadang-ri kiln 7 in Gangjin.

These features of the Yucheon-ri kilns emerged after Goryeo resumed diplomatic relations with the Song Dynasty in 1071, which led to increased trade with China and a greater influx of Chinese ceramics. Goryeo society also imported aspects of the lifestyle of Northern Song, including its use of ceramic ware in everyday life, and the subsequent rise in demand for ceramics made it necessary to establish more kilns. It is believed that the Yucheon-ri kilns and other kilns of the mid-Goryeo period began to appear around this time. This phenomenon is in line with the increased activity of the kilns in the northern part of China as the techniques of the southern Yuezhou kilns spread during the Northern Song Dynasty. Another major factor behind the spread of celadon kilns across Goryeo was the collapse of the state-managed craft production system in the early 12^th century, which paved the way for the operation of private kilns.

The Yongun-ri, Gyeyul-ri, and Sadang-ri kilns in Gangjin, and the Yucheon-ri and Jinseo-ri kilns in Buan all produced celadon with the seong (成) inscription. These kilns operated in virtual equilibrium from the 12^th century to the first half of the 13^th century, steadily producing almost the same vessel types and forms for a period of 150 years. This level of production is directly related to the number of available potters, obviously essential for kiln operation. The numerous kilns in Yucheon-ri were not all actively producing a large volume of wares at the same time; instead, it is thought that a small group of potters moved around within the region, steadily operating a small number of kilns at a time. It is also thought that, since there were no real benefits associated with being designated as a special administrative unit called a so, the Yucheon-ri kilns operated without such official designation, but nevertheless in a manner similar to the official kilns in Gangjin.

The discovery of a celadon shard inscribed with the year name im’o (壬午) at Yucheon-ri would seem to support the theory that the Yucheon-ri kilns were subject to the same strict government control as the Gangjin kilns. Since such a celadon inscribed with a cyclical year and other vessels excavated at Yucheon-ri can be dated to the 14^th century, it is thought that the Yucheon-ri kilns, like the Gangjin kilns, continued production until the end of the Goryeo Dynasty. Thus, the kilns in both Gangjin and Buan are the only kilns known to have survived and to have continued to produce celadon from the second half of the 13^th century until late Goryeo.

The closure of many regional kilns in the first half of the 13^th century can be attributed to the Mongol invasions. Some of these smaller regional kilns may have closed as the result of direct damage from the invasions, but most were probably forced to close due to the loss of manpower caused by the wartime evacuation of citizens to islands and mountain fortresses. Attacks by Japanese pirates also played a role in closing down the kilns. Unlike the majority of the country, Buan did not suffer great damage during the Mongol invasions, but records show that Buan was twice pillaged by Japanese pirates. The pirates likely targeted Anheungchang, one of Goryeo’s twelve quayside warehouses for collected tax goods, which was located in Buan, and it is highly likely that the Yucheon-ri kilns would have sustained damage in such an attack, since they were located along the coast. Such damage, along with the probable flight of potters from Yucheon-ri as the result of Japanese rampages, is therefore considered to be a primary reason for the closure of the Yucheon-ri kilns around the late 14^th century.

In conclusion, the Yucheon-ri kilns in Buan began operating at a time of stable celadon production, and along with the Gangjin kilns, produced not only the finest vessel types, but also celadon inscribed with cyclical year names (ganji). Hence, the Yucheon-ri kilns are essential to any understanding of Goryeo ceramics in a larger context.